{ "$schema": "https://paulineletters.com/data/agent/commons/v1/external-evidence.schema.json", "schemaVersion": "1.0", "version": "1.0.0", "dataset": "external-evidence", "locale": "zh-Hant", "title": "使徒行傳與保羅書信在新約以外的證據", "description": "與使徒行傳及這些書信相關的銘文、錢幣、遺址、抄本、猶太和羅馬作者以及早期基督徒作者，每一項都說明它證實了什麼、沒有證實什麼，以及解釋者在哪裡意見分歧。", "method": "根據第一手資料和館藏記錄起草，再經獨立複核：每段引文都出自公有領域譯本，並在其所在頁面上逐一核對（見核對憑據），館藏編號已逐一查明，並經對抗式審查檢查有無誇大論斷。現代學術研究只在著作層面標明。經文只標明出處。", "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "attribution": "Pauline Letters — https://paulineletters.com", "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/data/agent/commons/v1/external-evidence.json", "scripture": "References only. No Bible translation text is included; cite the reference and read it in a licensed or public-domain edition.", "itemCount": 46, "items": [ { "id": "temple-warning-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -23, "dateTo": 70, "corpusReferences": [ "OGIS 598", "CIIP I.1 no. 2", "CIJ II 1400", "IIP JERU0598", "IIP JERU0599" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 21:26-36", "Acts 21:28-29", "Acts 20:4", "Acts 23:26", "Acts 24:6", "Acts 24:18", "Acts 25:8", "Acts 26:21", "Ephesians 2:14-15", "Romans 15:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.trophimus", "person.lysias", "person.tertullus", "person.josephus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.ephesus", "place.judea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 5.193-194 (Whiston 5.5.2)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "there was a partition made of stone all round, whose height was three cubits: its construction was very elegant; upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another, declaring the law of purity, some in Greek, and some in Roman letters, that \"no foreigner should go within that sanctuary\"", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.124-126 (Whiston 6.2.4)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Have not we given you leave to kill such as go beyond it, though he were a Roman?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 15.417 (Whiston 15.11.5)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the midst of which, and not far from it, was the second, to be gone up to by a few steps: this was encompassed by a stone wall for a partition, with an inscription, which forbade any foreigner to go in under pain of death.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Temple Warning inscription (Q16934222)", "locator": "Q16934222", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q16934222.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Elias J. Bickerman", "work": "The Warning Inscriptions of Herod's Temple, Jewish Quarterly Review 37", "year": "1947", "view": "Assigns the notices to Herod's temple. The Inscriptions of Israel/Palestine records of both copies take their text and translation from this article." }, { "author": "Hannah M. Cotton, Leah Di Segni, Werner Eck, Benjamin Isaac et al. (eds.)", "work": "Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae, vol. I: Jerusalem, Part 1", "year": "2010", "view": "Edits the warning inscription from Herod's temple as no. 2, covering both copies, in its section of religious and public inscriptions from Jerusalem before AD 70." }, { "author": "Stephen R. Llewelyn and Dionysia van Beek", "work": "Reading the Temple Warning as a Greek Visitor, Journal for the Study of Judaism 42", "year": "2011", "view": "The Greek is not translation Greek. A Greek-speaking visitor would read the warning in terms of Hellenistic law, and the architecture of the outer court would support that reading. Such a visitor would take the warning as royal rather than priestly in authority." }, { "author": "Wilhelm Dittenberger", "work": "Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, vol. 2", "year": "1905", "view": "Edits the Istanbul stone alongside the parallels in Josephus. Quotes Mommsen's argument that the Romans had the notices cut after AD 6. Notes that the stone says hieron, a wider term, where Josephus speaks of the hagion." }, { "author": "J. Armitage Robinson", "work": "St Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians", "year": "1903", "view": "Reads the wall image of Ephesians 2:14 as an allusion to the temple balustrade and its warning stones. Links the barrier to the charge about Trophimus in Acts 21:29." }, { "author": "Charles Clermont-Ganneau", "work": "Discovery of a Tablet from Herod's Temple (PEF Quarterly Statement)", "year": "1871", "view": "The discoverer. Holds that the tablet follows Josephus's wording closely and sheds light on the riot of Acts 21." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q16934222", "label": "Temple Warning inscription" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" } ], "title": "耶路撒冷的聖殿警告銘文", "summary": "兩方出自耶路撒冷大希律聖殿的希臘文告示，一方完整（現藏伊斯坦布爾），一方殘缺（藏於Israel Museum），禁止任何非猶太人越過內院四周的屏障，並警告擅闖者要為自己的死負責。結合約瑟夫斯的描述，這些告示使《使徒行傳》21:28–29中針對保羅的指控變得可以理解，也顯出其嚴重性；但告示沒有點名任何人，也不能證明那項指控屬實。", "dating": "刻於大希律重建聖殿（約公元前23至前19年動工）至聖殿於公元70年被毀之間的某個時候。銘文目錄把兩份副本都定為公元前23年至公元70年；確切的刻製日期不詳。", "currentLocation": "伊斯坦布爾考古博物館（完整石碑，1871年發現）；耶路撒冷的Israel Museum（IAA 1936-989）（殘片）", "establishes": [ "大希律的聖殿在內院四周設有屏障，屏障上有希臘文告示。告示禁止任何非猶太人（allogenes）進入聖所周圍的欄杆和圍牆之內，並警告被抓到的擅闖者要為自己的死負責。現存一份完整副本和一塊殘片。", "約瑟夫斯描述了這道屏障及其以死刑為後盾的禁令（《猶太古史》15.417），說告示以希臘文和拉丁文寫成（《猶太戰記》5.193-194），又借提圖斯之口聲稱，羅馬容許猶太人處死擅闖者，即使擅闖者是羅馬人也不例外（《猶太戰記》6.124-126）。", "在《使徒行傳》21:28–29，保羅被控帶外邦人進入聖殿、污穢了聖殿，其依據是假定他曾帶以弗所人特羅非摩進去。這項指控援引一條真實且公開張貼的規定：外邦人越過屏障屬於死罪。這有助於解釋群眾的暴力（《使徒行傳》21:30–31）。駐軍介入了隨之而起的騷亂（《使徒行傳》21:31–36）。", "約瑟夫斯把屏障定位在從外院上到內院的通道上，並說告示禁止外族人再往前走（《猶太戰記》5.193-194；《猶太古史》15.417）。因此，被指控的罪行是帶外邦人越過屏障，而不是帶外邦人進入聖殿範圍本身。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能證明保羅曾帶他來自亞細亞的同伴特羅非摩（《使徒行傳》20:4）或任何其他外邦人越過屏障。《使徒行傳》把這項指控呈現為一種推斷，源於有人看見他們一同在城裡（《使徒行傳》21:29）；保羅否認自己有任何干犯聖殿的行為（《使徒行傳》24:18；《使徒行傳》25:8）。帖土羅在腓力斯面前重提這項指控（《使徒行傳》24:6），保羅也回憶自己曾在聖殿裡被捉拿（《使徒行傳》26:21）。", "銘文沒有點名任何個人。它們證實的是這條規定的存在和嚴重性，而不是逮捕本身或《使徒行傳》21至26章的其他細節，例如《使徒行傳》後來稱為克勞第‧呂西亞的那位千夫長所起的作用（《使徒行傳》23:26）。", "石碑上的刑罰針對擅闖的外邦人；對於帶外邦人進去的猶太人，它沒有列明任何刑罰。因此，單憑石碑本身，不能解釋群眾為何轉而攻擊保羅本人。", "它不能解決兩個問題：《以弗所書》2:14是否暗指這道屏障；以及死亡警告指的是法庭判刑、被默許的暴民暴力，還是神的懲罰。" ], "debate": "有幾個問題仍無定論。告示由誰設立，在何時設立：大希律的建造者、祭司，還是公元6年以後的羅馬當局？最後一說是Mommsen的看法，見於OGIS 598的引述，其依據是約瑟夫斯所記載的拉丁文版本告示（無一存世）以及提圖斯的話。“要為自己的死負責”指的是法庭處決、被默許的暴民行動，還是神的懲罰？由約瑟夫斯撰寫的提圖斯演說，在多大程度上反映羅馬的實際政策？最後，《以弗所書》2:14中牆的意象是暗指這道屏障，還是指律法（《以弗所書》2:15）？這個問題部分取決於這封書信有爭議的作者歸屬和日期。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "場景準確，但不等於證實事件", "statement": "這條規定廣為人知：約瑟夫斯不只一次記述它，而且它以希臘文張貼在聖殿。一位與事件有一段距離的作者也能把場景寫得準確，所以兩者吻合顯示《使徒行傳》熟悉聖殿，卻不能證實那場暴動和逮捕。保羅在書信中確實表明，他預料會在猶太遭遇不信之人帶來的危險（《羅馬書》15:30–31），但所顯示的並非暴動本身。" }, { "label": "《以弗所書》2:14指律法，而非欄杆", "statement": "按這種讀法，牆的意象代表律法及其誡命，而下一節說律法已被廢除（《以弗所書》2:15）。《以弗所書》描述牆的用詞也有別於石碑（tryphaktos、peribolos）和約瑟夫斯（dryphaktos），因此聖殿屏障是Robinson（1903）等解經者所提供的例證。如果《以弗所書》寫於公元70年以後，那道屏障當時已被摧毀。" }, { "label": "告示出自羅馬人", "statement": "Dittenberger在OGIS 598引述Theodor Mommsen的看法：猶太於公元6年成為行省之後，羅馬人命人刻製了這些告示。他指出約瑟夫斯所記載、與希臘文版本並列的拉丁文版本（至今未發現），以及約瑟夫斯書中提圖斯的話。另一些人則把告示視為大希律重建工程的一部分。無論採用哪種看法，這些告示在保羅在世時都已豎立。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/temple-warning-inscription" }, { "id": "ephesus-theatre", "kind": "site", "dateFrom": -200, "dateTo": 117, "corpusReferences": [ "I.Ephesos 27", "SEG 15, 698", "SEG 41, 974", "GIBM III 481" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:23-41", "Acts 19:29-31", "Acts 19:35-41", "Acts 19:39", "1 Corinthians 15:32", "1 Corinthians 16:8-9", "2 Corinthians 1:8-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius", "person.gaius", "person.aristarchus", "person.alexander" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Theater of Ephesus", "locator": "Pleiades 818256726 (connected to Ephesus 599612)", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/818256726/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Theater (Ephesus)", "locator": "Q15723477", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q15723477.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII, sec. 5, p. 277", "url": "https://archive.org/download/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The scene which follows is the most instructive picture of society in an Asian city at this period that has come down to us.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "philostratus-conybeare", "author": "Philostratus", "work": "The Life of Apollonius of Tyana", "translator": "F. C. Conybeare", "year": "1912", "locator": "VA 4.10", "url": "https://archive.org/download/lifeofapollonius00philuoft/lifeofapollonius00philuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And with these words he led the population entire to the theatre, where the image of the Averting god has been set up.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Peter Ruggendorfer and Friedrich Krinzinger (eds.)", "work": "Das Theater von Ephesos: Archäologischer Befund, Funde und Chronologie (Forschungen in Ephesos)", "year": "2017", "view": "Traces the theatre through eight building or usage phases. Dates the Hellenistic stage building to the first half of the 2nd century BC but finds that the auditorium's original date and shape cannot be determined. The most extensive Roman changes (stage building, extended upper seating) are placed under Domitian, with the south wing finished under Trajan, and the whole stage facade is assigned to the late Flavian period rather than to AD 66. Only limited early-imperial work is documented before then." }, { "author": "Gudrun Styhler-Aydın", "work": "Der Zuschauerraum des Theaters von Ephesos: Baubefund und architekturhistorische Analyse", "year": "2022", "view": "The Hellenistic theatre was already one of the large theatres of Asia Minor. Building from the 1st into the first half of the 2nd century AD made it one of the largest Roman-period auditoria in the region, with a diameter close to 150 m." }, { "author": "Rudolf Heberdey, George Niemann and Wilhelm Wilberg", "work": "Das Theater in Ephesos (Forschungen in Ephesos II)", "year": "1912", "view": "The first full Austrian publication of the theatre. As reported in the 2017 volume, it reconstructed the Hellenistic auditorium as already three-tiered, seating about 23,000, and dated the first stage-facade storeys to AD 66 from an architrave inscription." }, { "author": "J. T. Wood", "work": "Discoveries at Ephesus", "year": "1877", "view": "Excavated the theatre, computed its seating at 24,500, and found the Salutaris inscription in its southern entrance." }, { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part III: Priene, Iasos and Ephesos", "year": "1890", "view": "Edits the Salutaris bequest as no. 481 from inscribed marble blocks that formed the wall on the right flank of the theatre's south entrance, most still in their original courses when found. Notes that its documents regulate the carrying of the images to and from the theatre and reserve a place for the city's boys at assemblies held there." }, { "author": "Guy MacLean Rogers", "work": "The Sacred Identity of Ephesos: Foundation Myths of a Roman City", "year": "1991", "view": "Edits and translates the Salutaris foundation (I.Ephesos 27) and argues that its processions of images from the Artemision into the theatre at assemblies and festivals expressed an Ephesian civic identity centred on Artemis." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Judged the author of Acts very well informed about Ephesian municipal institutions: the town clerk's control of the gathering, the theatre as the assembly's usual meeting place (citing a Salutaris inscription), and the appeal to a properly convened assembly. Argued that a scene in which the civic assembly still mattered belongs to an era that did not outlast the Antonines." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues that Acts' many local and institutional details, including those of the Ephesian episode, reflect accurate knowledge of first-century conditions and support the general reliability of its narrative." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Reads Acts' riots and crowd scenes as entertaining literary set-pieces comparable to the ancient novel. On this reading a vivid, accurate setting is not by itself evidence that the event happened." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q15723477", "label": "Theater (Ephesus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "818256726", "label": "Theater of Ephesus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q47611", "label": "Ephesus" } ], "title": "以弗所大劇場", "summary": "以弗所大劇場依Panayır Dağı的山坡鑿建，是《使徒行傳》19:29記載群眾聚集的真實場地，至今仍然可見。它在希臘化時期很可能已能容納大批群眾；劇場內的一方銘文顯示，最遲到公元104年，公民大會已在那裡舉行。遺址證實的是場景，而不是暴動；而且現今可見的遺跡大多晚於保羅的時代。", "dating": "希臘化時期的舞台建築：公元前二世紀上半葉（觀眾席最初的年代和形制無法確定）；羅馬時期的主要擴建：多米田和圖拉真在位期間（約公元81至117年）；薩盧塔里斯銘文：公元104年", "currentLocation": "原址：土耳其塞爾丘克（伊茲密爾省）以弗所考古遺址；薩盧塔里斯銘文部分仍在原址，部分石塊藏於大英博物館", "establishes": [ "早在保羅居留之前很久，以弗所已有一座劇場，嵌建於Panayır Dağı的山坡上。其舞台建築可追溯至公元前二世紀上半葉，是小亞細亞最大的希臘化時期舞台建築之一，這暗示觀眾席規模很大，但確切大小不詳。", "薩盧塔里斯銘文（I.Ephesos 27，公元104年）刻在劇場南入口的牆上，規定每逢法定的公民大會，都要把亞底米和其他人物的像從她的神廟抬進劇場安放。可見到了那時，劇場既是公民大會的會場，也是敬奉亞底米的舞台，這與《使徒行傳》19:23–41的場景相符。", "遺址和銘文從以弗所本地的情況來看，使《使徒行傳》的一項對比變得合理：一邊是聚集在劇場裡的群眾，一邊是城裡的書記所指出、依法召開的大會（《使徒行傳》19:39）。", "今天遊客所見的大部分，包括舞台立面和加建的上層座位（直徑近150米），都屬於一次主要定年於多米田和圖拉真在位期間（約公元81至117年）的擴建，晚於保羅。在公元50年代中期，這座建築仍是較早的希臘化時期劇場，並有一些帝國早期的改建。", "一部三世紀的傳奇敘事記載阿波羅尼烏斯帶領以弗所全城居民進入劇場（斐洛斯特拉圖斯，《阿波羅尼烏斯傳》4.10）。這份資料年代較晚，也不是《使徒行傳》的獨立佐證，但它顯示人們記得劇場是全城聚集的地方。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能獨立證實《使徒行傳》19:23–41的暴動曾經發生，也不能證實其中任何細節：底米丟其人、該猶和亞里達古被捉拿、亞歷山大其人，或長達兩小時的呼喊。劇場中發現的東西，沒有一件提到保羅或那場騷動。", "各種容量數字（Wood在1877年自行計算的24,500人；2017年奧地利出版的專書估計羅馬時期的cavea約可容納20,000人；Pleiades所列多達25,000人）描述的是擴建後的羅馬建築，或是建基於復原方案。它們不能告訴我們劇場在公元50年代中期可容納多少人，或當時有多少人在場；《使徒行傳》也沒有給出數字。", "薩盧塔里斯銘文比保羅的居留晚約五十年，而且它形容定期大會所用的希臘文形容詞，與《使徒行傳》19:39所用的不同。它說明的是城市的慣例，而不是公元50年代的事件。儘管一些通俗的重述這樣講，《使徒行傳》並沒有說保羅進入劇場或在那裡講話（《使徒行傳》19:30–31）。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍無定論。第一，這座建築在保羅的時代是什麼模樣。奧地利的研究把羅馬時期的主要擴建和舞台立面定在多米田和圖拉真時期，而較早的研究則把立面最初幾層定在公元66年；2017年的發掘報告也認為，希臘化時期觀眾席的年代和形制無法確定，因此它當時的容量並不確定。第二，準確的場景意味著什麼。Sherwin-White和Hemer把精確的城市制度細節視為所據傳統消息靈通的標誌。Pervo把這段情節讀作刻意經營的文學場景；另有人指出，一位較晚而熟悉情況的作者也能補上這類地方色彩，所以場景本身不能證實那場暴動。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "真實騷亂的準確場景", "statement": "路加採用了有關以弗所一場真實危機的可靠資料。以劇場為會場、大會的用語、城裡的書記和亞細亞首領，都符合帝國早期的以弗所（Sherwin-White、Hemer）；Ramsay稱這一幕是現存最具啟發性的亞細亞城市社會圖景。保羅的書信記述他在以弗所和亞細亞遭遇嚴重危險（《哥林多前書》15:32；《哥林多前書》16:8–9；《哥林多後書》1:8–10），卻從未提到劇場暴動。" }, { "label": "熟悉舞台上的文學場景", "statement": "這段情節主要是路加的戲劇性創作，類似Pervo拿來與古代小說相比的群眾場面。劇場、對亞底米的敬奉和城市公職，都是以弗所公開而長期存在的特色，到公元104年仍很顯著，所以熟悉情況的作者不需要特定資料來源，也能把場景設在那裡。按這種看法，準確的場景既不能證實事件，也不能為《使徒行傳》定年。" }, { "label": "真實的風波，編寫的場景", "statement": "一種折衷看法認為，記述背後確有一場真實的騷亂，因為保羅的書信證實他在以弗所遭遇嚴重危險；但場景及其中的演說是路加編寫的。按這種看法，場景支持一個關於衝突的傳統，卻不能證實其細節。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-ephesus-theatre" }, { "id": "erastus-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 31, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.3 232", "AE 1930, 118", "EDH HD025815", "EDCS-32001186", "TM 177152" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 16:23", "Acts 19:22", "2 Timothy 4:20", "1 Corinthians 1:26" ], "personIds": [ "person.erastus", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (record last updated 2013-05-24, Cowey)", "work": "EDH inscription record: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus", "year": "2013", "locator": "EDH HD025815", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD025815", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss / Slaby", "work": "EDCS monument record (JSON data endpoint)", "locator": "EDCS-32001186", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/320/32001186.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "author": "Trismegistos", "work": "TM text relations data service", "locator": "TM 177152", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/177152", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Corinthus/Korinthos", "locator": "Pleiades 570182", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/570182/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae, or, The Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul", "year": "1790 (Cambridge, Mass. edition, 1806)", "locator": "ch. II (Epistle to the Romans), No. II", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horaepaulinaeort00pale/horaepaulinaeort00pale_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Erastus was one of those who had attended St. Paul in his travels, Acts xix. 22; and when those travels had, upon some occasion, brought our apostle and his train to Corinth, Erastus staid there, for no reason so probable as that it was his home.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Henry J. Cadbury", "work": "\"Erastus of Corinth,\" Journal of Biblical Literature 50", "year": "1931", "view": "Read the civic title in Romans as rendering arcarius rei publicae, a municipal post held by slaves or men of servile origin, and judged identification with the paving aedile improbable and close to impossible, chiefly because one career was unlikely to include both posts. Did not treat the objection that a Christian could not serve as aedile as decisive. Warned that the three New Testament Erasti are not certainly one person and that the aedile may be a later Corinthian." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Corpus edition of no. 232. As summarised by Gill (1989), Kent dated the pavement to about the middle of the first century and judged the identification with the Erastus of Romans sound. He cited the rarity of the cognomen at Corinth and argued that the civic title in Romans describes a Corinthian aedile's functions." }, { "author": "Gerd Theissen", "work": "The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth (English translation)", "year": "1982", "view": "As reported by Gill (1989) and Clarke (1991), equates the civic title in Romans with a junior office such as quaestor rather than aedile. Allows the identification as possible without being convinced." }, { "author": "Victor P. Furnish", "work": "Corinth in Paul's Time: What Can Archaeology Tell Us?, Biblical Archaeology Review 15", "year": "1988", "view": "As reported by Gill (1989), follows Theissen in proposing that Erastus was first quaestor and later aedile, and accepts that the aedile is the Erastus whom Paul and the author of 2 Timothy mention." }, { "author": "David W. J. Gill", "work": "\"Erastus the Aedile,\" Tyndale Bulletin 40", "year": "1989", "view": "The evidence allows neither a certain identification nor a certain rejection. The lack of space for filiation and tribe suggests the aedile was a freedman, and the civic title in Romans could correspond to aedile at Corinth. Reports the complete slab found in situ in 1929 in the paved area east of the stage building, with other pieces found in 1928 and 1947." }, { "author": "Andrew D. Clarke", "work": "\"Another Corinthian Erastus Inscription,\" Tyndale Bulletin 42", "year": "1991", "view": "Draws attention to a second-century dedication, first published by Pallas and Dantes, that probably names an Erastus at Corinth, and rejects identifying that man with Paul's associate. Holds that identifying the first-century aedile remains a significant possibility." }, { "author": "John K. Goodrich", "work": "\"Erastus, Quaestor of Corinth,\" New Testament Studies 56", "year": "2010", "view": "Argues that Erastus's civic title in Romans 16:23 corresponds to the quaestorship, a high-ranking municipal office held by the economic elite. Rejects arcarius and aedile as the Latin equivalents." }, { "author": "Alexander Weiss", "work": "\"Keine Quästoren in Korinth: Zu Goodrichs (und Theißens) These über das Amt des Erastos (Röm 16.23),\" New Testament Studies 56", "year": "2010", "view": "Argues that the municipal office of quaestor did not exist at Corinth, against Theissen and Goodrich." }, { "author": "Steven J. Friesen", "work": "\"The Wrong Erastus: Ideology, Archaeology, and Exegesis,\" in Corinth in Context: Comparative Studies on Religion and Society (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 134)", "year": "2010", "view": "As summarised in reviews and responses, argues that the inscription lies in a secondary context and was probably not commissioned before the mid-second century, so it names a non-Christian elite aedile rather than Paul's Erastus. Holds that the Erastus of Romans was a low-status public servant, possibly a slave, and probably not a believer." }, { "author": "John K. Goodrich", "work": "\"Erastus of Corinth (Romans 16.23): Responding to Recent Proposals on his Rank, Status, and Faith,\" New Testament Studies 57", "year": "2011", "view": "Responds to Weiss and Friesen, including Friesen's proposal that Erastus was an unbelieving public slave, and defends the view that Erastus was a Christian who served as a Corinthian municipal quaestor." }, { "author": "Timothy A. Brookins", "work": "\"The (In)frequency of the Name 'Erastus' in Antiquity: A Literary, Papyrological, and Epigraphical Catalog,\" New Testament Studies 59", "year": "2013", "view": "Catalogues ancient occurrences of the name and finds it rare, with very few records from first-century Greece." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177152", "label": "Building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" } ], "title": "哥林多的Erastus鋪石銘文", "summary": "哥林多劇場以東一處鋪石廣場上的拉丁文銘文記載，一位名叫Erastus的人自費鋪設了地面，以回報自己獲任營造官。它把一位同名男子置於羅馬時期哥林多的官長之列，也就是《羅馬書》16:23所描述的那種城市背景。它不能證明此人就是保羅所提的以拉都：他的全名已經失傳，《羅馬書》中的頭銜是否相當於營造官仍有爭議，日期也有爭論。", "dating": "編目定為公元31至70年（EDH、EDCS），與Kent所定的一世紀中葉相符。Friesen（2010）主張它很可能不早於二世紀中葉鋪設；此處所列的年代範圍止於公元150年，即該主張的最早時點，而非其終點。", "currentLocation": "希臘古哥林多考古遺址：劇場以東鋪石區內的原位石板；其他殘塊的所在位置，此處未經確認。", "establishes": [ "一方出自羅馬時期哥林多的拉丁文建築銘文（Kent，Corinth VIII.3 no. 232；EDH HD025815）記載，一位cognomen為Erastus的男子自費（sua pecunia）鋪設了這片地方，以回報自己獲任營造官（pro aedilitate）。他的praenomen和nomen已經失傳，原本鑲嵌金屬字母的刻槽是唯一留存的部分。", "它顯示，位於亞該亞行省的羅馬殖民城哥林多設有營造官，而任職者可以出資鋪設公共地面，以回報自己的當選。", "它把一位名叫Erastus的人置於哥林多的公職階層之中，時間介於一世紀中葉至（按最晚的主張）二世紀中葉或更晚之間的某個時候。因此，一位擁有城市頭銜的哥林多人以拉都（《羅馬書》16:23），與這座城市有文獻記錄的背景相符。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能證明這位營造官就是《羅馬書》16:23、《使徒行傳》19:22或《提摩太後書》4:20中的以拉都。他的praenomen和nomen已經失傳，《羅馬書》中的城市頭銜是否對應營造官一職仍有爭議，日期也有爭論。", "它不能證明《使徒行傳》、《羅馬書》和《提摩太後書》所提的以拉都是同一人；這個問題取決於經文，而非這塊石碑。Paley（1790）根據《使徒行傳》19:22、《羅馬書》16:23和《提摩太後書》4:20，主張哥林多是以拉都的家鄉；這個論證早於石碑出土，並取決於經文。", "它不能證明保羅在哥林多的教會有富裕的官長，或曾有基督徒擔任營造官；兩者都取決於有爭議的身分認定。保羅說哥林多信徒中有地位的人不多（《哥林多前書》1:26），這句話既不排除、也不證實有精英成員。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍無定論。日期：Kent把鋪石定在一世紀中葉前後，EDH和EDCS則把它編目為公元31至70年。Gill報告完整的石板於1929年在原位發現；但Friesen主張，銘文處於次生脈絡，很可能不早於二世紀中葉鋪設。公職：有人把《羅馬書》16:23中以拉都的城市頭銜等同於營造官（Kent、Gill），有人等同於財務官（Theissen、Goodrich），也有人（Cadbury；Friesen）把它讀作低階的城市職位，可能由奴隸擔任；Weiss則否認哥林多設有市級財務官。身分：Brookins認為這個名字罕見，但哥林多很可能有一位二世紀的Erastus（Clarke 1991），顯示這個名字在當地並非獨一無二；加上praenomen和nomen已經失傳，身分認定仍只是可能，而非已獲證明。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "同一人，後來的仕途", "statement": "Kent認為把此人認定為《羅馬書》中的以拉都是可靠的，Clarke也仍視之為一個重要的可能性。Theissen把《羅馬書》中的職位等同於財務官之類的初級職位；Furnish依循他的看法，提出以拉都在寫信前後擔任財務官，後來擔任營造官。Goodrich同樣主張那是財務官一職，並認為這是由精英擔任的高級職位。" }, { "label": "另一位較晚的營造官", "statement": "Friesen主張，銘文處於次生脈絡，很可能不早於二世紀中葉鋪設。按這種看法，銘文所記的是一位非基督徒的精英成員，而不是《羅馬書》中的以拉都；後者是一名低階的城市辦事人員，可能是奴隸。Friesen也懷疑《羅馬書》中的以拉都究竟是不是信徒。" }, { "label": "按現有證據無法判定", "statement": "Gill認為，現有證據既不容許有把握地認定兩者為同一人，也不容許有把握地否定。這片鋪石為記錄增添了一位哥林多的Erastus，卻沒有解決他是否就是保羅所提的那個人。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/erastus-inscription" }, { "id": "gallio-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 51, "dateTo": 52, "corpusReferences": [ "FD III 4, 286", "SIG3 801 D", "AE 2002, 1335", "Oliver, Greek Constitutions 31", "EDH HD043294", "EDCS-66400014", "PHI 240470", "SEG 32, 546 (Deiana's reading of line 17; PHI 240472)", "TM 177226" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 18:1-11", "Acts 18:18", "1 Corinthians 1:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.gallio", "person.claudius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.achaia", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: public legal inscription from Delphi (Achaia)", "locator": "EDH HD043294", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD043294", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (record last updated by Cowey)", "year": "2011" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (references FDelphes 286; AE 2002, 1335; dated 52; Delphoi, Achaia)", "locator": "EDCS-66400014", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/66400014", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos Texts, text-relations service (links EDH HD043294, EDCS 66400014, PHI 240470-240472)", "locator": "TM 177226", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/177226", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Delphi Inscription", "locator": "Q5254406", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q5254406.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "collection of letter fragments written by Claudius", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "seneca-epistles-gummere", "work": "Seneca, Moral Letters to Lucilius (Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales), vol. 3", "locator": "Ep. 104.1", "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Moral_letters_to_Lucilius/Letter_104", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "for I remembered my master Gallio’s words, when he began to develop a fever in Achaia and took ship at once, insisting that the disease was not of the body but of the place.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Seneca", "translator": "Richard Mott Gummere", "year": "1925" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "work": "Tacitus, Annals, Book 15", "locator": "Ann. 15.73", "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Salienus Clemens denounced Junius Gallio, who was terror-stricken at his brother Seneca's death", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (Wikisource text based on their translation)", "year": "1876" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "work": "Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60 (Loeb vol. VII)", "locator": "60.24.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, which ever since the reign of Tiberius had been assigned to governors directly appointed, Claudius now made to depend upon the lot once more.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "work": "Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60 (Loeb vol. VII)", "locator": "60.17.3", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he gave notice to the governors chosen by lot, since they were slow even now about leaving the city, that they must begin their journey before the middle of April.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL 06, 01256 (p 3129, 3798, 4365) = ILS 218a", "locator": "EDCS-17800159 (CIL 06, 01256 (p 3129, 3798, 4365) = ILS 218a)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/178/17800159.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Émile Bourguet", "work": "De rebus Delphicis imperatoriae aetatis capita duo", "year": "1905", "view": "First published the four fragments together as a letter of Claudius (one had earlier been drawn by Nikitsky). Without discussing Paul, he gave Gallio's year of office as AD 52 on the authority of the Prosopographia (as reported by Deissmann 1912 and SIG3)." }, { "author": "Adolf Deissmann", "work": "St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History, Appendix I (English translation of Paulus, 1911)", "year": "1912", "view": "Dated the letter between the end of 51 or, more probably, the beginning of 52 and 1 August 52, using Dessau's acclamation data and Dessau's date of 1 August 52 for the aqueduct's dedication. Argued that Gallio took office in the summer of 51 and placed Paul in Corinth from early 50 to late summer 51." }, { "author": "André Plassart", "work": "Fouilles de Delphes III.4, no. 286", "year": "1970", "view": "Edited the assembled fragments. Read line 5 as showing that Gallio had reported Delphi's depopulation, and divided line 17 to give a second-person singular pronoun, so that the recipient was an individual, probably Gallio's successor as proconsul (as reported by Oliver 1971)." }, { "author": "James H. Oliver", "work": "The Epistle of Claudius Which Mentions the Proconsul Junius Gallio (Hesperia 40)", "year": "1971", "view": "Accepted most of Plassart's text but doubted the second-person reading of line 17, preferring to take the letters as the end of a verb. Argued that Gallio appears to be proconsul when the emperor writes and that the recipient was a community, either the city of Delphi or the Amphictyonic Council." }, { "author": "Gerd Lüdemann", "work": "Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology (German original 1980)", "year": "1984", "view": "Argues that Acts 18 conflates accounts of two of Paul's visits to Corinth and dates the Gallio incident to the later visit. Reported here via Fellows 2005; not checked in the book itself." }, { "author": "Richard G. Fellows", "work": "Renaming in Paul's Churches: The Case of Crispus-Sosthenes Revisited (Tyndale Bulletin 56.2)", "year": "2005", "view": "Names Donfried, Lüdemann and Hurd as proponents of the view that Acts 18 conflates two visits, and rejects it: since Sosthenes was already a believer who had left Corinth when 1 Corinthians was written, the Gallio incident probably belongs to Paul's first visit." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5254406", "label": "Delphi Inscription" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177226", "label": "Letter of Claudius to Delphi naming Gallio (TM text)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q452194", "label": "Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q75459", "label": "Delphi" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "540726", "label": "Delphi" } ], "title": "德爾斐的迦流碑文", "summary": "刻在德爾斐的一封克勞第皇帝書信的殘片，稱迦流（復原為[L. Ju]nius Gallio）為皇帝的朋友和省長。根據克勞第的第26次統帥歡呼，這封信最可能寫於公元52年的頭七個月，因此迦流約於51／52年治理亞該亞，也可能是52／53年。它為《使徒行傳》18:12–17的審訊提供了時間錨點，儘管它從未提到保羅或那次審訊。", "dating": "最可能是公元52年的頭七個月（8月1日之前）；不能完全排除公元51年最末的可能。這是刻在石上的一封克勞第皇帝書信副本，以他的第26次統帥歡呼定年。", "currentLocation": "德爾斐（EDH）。Deissmann（1912）報告，Bourguet的四塊殘片藏於德爾斐博物館（Inv. 3883、2178、2271、4001）；目前的展出情況未經核實。", "establishes": [ "刻在德爾斐的一封克勞第皇帝書信，稱迦流為皇帝的朋友和省長；這段話談到德爾斐缺少公民的問題，顯然是由他報告的（該動詞為復原所得）。名字只存“-nios Gallion”；“Junius”、“朋友”和“省長”都是根據殘缺字母復原的，但普遍獲得接受。德爾斐位於亞該亞，因此這封信在《使徒行傳》之外獨立證實迦流曾治理亞該亞（《使徒行傳》18:12）。", "克勞第的頭銜保存了他統帥歡呼次數的數字26。一方來自Kys的銘文把第26次與他的第12個保民官年並列；馬焦雷門（Porta Maggiore）水道銘文（CIL VI 1256；EDR104278）則把第12年與第27次並列。由於Dessau把該水道定於52年8月1日，Deissmann（1912）亦從此說，這封信最可能落在52年的頭七個月；51年末也不能完全排除。", "省長通常任職約一年，所以迦流的任期與52年上半年重疊：最可能是51／52年，也可能是52／53年。如果《使徒行傳》18:12–17對審訊時間的安排正確，審訊便落在約51至53年之間。Deissmann（1912）主張51／52年；據Deissmann報告，Ramsay傾向52／53年。", "塔西佗（《編年史》15.73）指出迦流是塞內卡的兄弟；塞內卡（《道德書簡》104.1）回憶他在開始發燒時乘船離開亞該亞，所以他的任期可能提前結束（此為推論）。狄奧（60.24.1）說，克勞第在公元44年把亞該亞交還給抽籤選出的總督治理，這與《使徒行傳》18:12中的省長頭銜相符。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它沒有提到保羅、哥林多的猶太人或任何審訊。它證實的是《使徒行傳》18:12所提的那位總督，而不是《使徒行傳》18:12–17的場景確如所敘述的那樣發生過。", "它沒有給出迦流任期的起止日期。要在51／52年與52／53年之間作出選擇，取決於通常一年的任期、任期何時開始，以及這封信是否把迦流視為在任的省長。", "它不能顯示這次審訊落在保羅於哥林多十八個月或更長的停留期間中的哪個時點（《使徒行傳》18:11和《使徒行傳》18:18）。因此，保羅抵達哥林多的日期是進一步的推論。", "它不能證明《使徒行傳》18:1–18描述的是一次連續的探訪。" ], "debate": "公元52年這個日期建基於石碑上留存的歡呼次數；尚待解決的問題都在此之後。8月1日這個上限，只有在馬焦雷門銘文反映水道落成奉獻日期的情況下才成立（EDR只把它定為52／53年）；而Dessau雖然認為不大可能，仍容許第26次歡呼落在51年最末。迦流的任期年度可能是51／52年，也可能是52／53年。狄奧（60.17.3）說，克勞第在公元43年下令抽籤選出的總督須在四月中旬前離開羅馬，這暗示任期始於春季或初夏（此為推論）；Deissmann追隨Mommsen，假定名義上始於7月1日。Plassart把第17行讀作第二人稱（此處所知是根據Oliver〔1971〕的報告），使收信人成為迦流的繼任者。Oliver則傾向認為收信人是一個群體；另有人把第17行切分為動詞εἴασε，從而去掉了代名詞（Deiana，SEG 32.546；PHI 240472）。像Deissmann那樣把審訊放在迦流任期的早期，是一項推論；而那個場景是否發生過，則是另一個歷史判斷。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "迦流的任期年度是52／53年", "statement": "迦流可能在52年春季或初夏上任，而克勞第在52年8月1日之前寫信。這樣，審訊便落在52年或53年初，保羅則約於51年抵達哥林多。Deissmann報告，Ramsay（1909）把這任省長的任期定為52年4月至53年4月，把保羅抵達的時間定於51年10月；Babut（1911）也傾向相近的範圍。" }, { "label": "這封信在迦流卸任後發出", "statement": "據Oliver（1971）報告，Plassart切分第17行，得出一個第二人稱單數代名詞，使收信人成為一個人，很可能是迦流的繼任者，信中告訴他迦流曾報告的內容。這會把迦流的任期年度定在51／52年，審訊則在51年或52年初。Oliver懷疑這個讀法，因為克勞第仍稱迦流為省長；而Deiana對這一行的切分則去掉了代名詞。" }, { "label": "《使徒行傳》18章合併了兩次探訪", "statement": "Donfried、Lüdemann和Hurd（據Fellows 2005的報告）認為，《使徒行傳》18章合併了兩次哥林多之行，並把迦流事件放在後一次；這樣，碑文定年的就是審訊，而不是保羅的抵達。Fellows回應說，這事件很可能屬於第一次探訪：如果《使徒行傳》18:17的所提尼是《哥林多前書》的聯名發信人（《哥林多前書》1:1），就很難把事件定在那封信之後。" }, { "label": "公職獲證實，場景未獲證明", "statement": "持懷疑態度的讀者可以承認迦流約在這時治理亞該亞，卻仍把《使徒行傳》18:12–17視為路加為哥林多故事所設的框架。Deissmann報告，Loisy認為審訊若屬史實，應定於52年或53年初。碑文確定了公職和大致日期；事件是否發生，則需要另行評估《使徒行傳》。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/gallio-inscription" }, { "id": "ephesus-artemis-neokoros", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -334, "dateTo": 244, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 2626", "RPC I 2627", "RPC I 2628", "IPriene 231 (= IK Priene 150)", "IEph 27B (= GIBM 481)", "IEph 27E", "IEph 300 (= CIG 2972)", "IEph 1578A (= GIBM 578; SEG 36, 1028)", "IEph 2040", "IEph 2212", "IEph 4336" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:23-41", "Acts 19:24", "Acts 19:27", "Acts 19:35" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "work": "Description of Greece", "author": "Pausanias", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones and H. A. Ormerod", "year": "1918", "locator": "Paus. 4.31.8", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But all cities worship Artemis of Ephesus, and individuals hold her in honor above all the gods.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895 (text read from the 1903 printing)", "locator": "ch. XII §5, 'Demetrius the Silversmith' (p. 278 in the 1903 printing)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/cu31924029332297/cu31924029332297_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The richer tradesmen made shrines in the more expensive material, and silver was evidently a favourite material among the wealthy.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "Demetrius the Silversmith (The Expositor, 4th series, vol. 1); Ephesus: A Postscript (The Expositor, 4th series, vol. 2)", "year": "1890", "view": "Combined fragments of an honorary list of neopoioi (GIBM 578 = IEph 1578A) and identified the Demetrios of its dating formula, whom he took as foreman of the neopoioi, with the silversmith of Acts 19. He dated the list before Vespasian, possibly to Paul's time, and preferred metal statuettes like the Salutaris images to shrines. The first article is known here through Rogers 1986; the postscript was read." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "view": "The shrines were small shrines of the goddess sold for dedication: cheap ones in terracotta, costlier ones in marble or silver. Demetrius was a leading figure in these trades, and the riot reflects threatened commercial and temple interests." }, { "author": "G. M. Rogers", "work": "Demetrios of Ephesos: Silversmith and Neopoios? (Belleten 50)", "year": "1986", "view": "Doubts Hicks's dating and identification: the Demetrios of the dating formula appears to be a city official and is not definitely a neopoios, while the Demetrios of lines 6-7 certainly is, and identifying him with the silversmith is speculation. Neopoioi conferred citizenship and guarded the Artemision's dedications, including the Salutaris images; if Demetrius was one, Luke's silence about the office would reveal his narrative purpose." }, { "author": "S. J. Friesen", "work": "Twice Neokoros: Ephesus, Asia and the Cult of the Flavian Imperial Family", "year": "1993", "view": "Dates the provincial temple of the Sebastoi at Ephesus, the city's first securely attested imperial neokorate, to AD 89/90, and approves Keil's reading of the Neronian neokoroi coins as referring to Artemis. Both points are reported via Witetschek 2009 and secondary summaries, not checked in the book." }, { "author": "B. Burrell", "work": "Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors", "year": "2004", "view": "A comprehensive study of neokoros cities. Connects the Neronian coins with an imperial temple granted under Nero, and treats Acts 19:35 as reflecting the 50s, arguing that 'neokoros of Artemis' would not have suited Ephesus between its imperial neokorate and the early third century. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "S. Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "Acts 19:35 is the earliest clear attestation of Ephesus as neokoros of Artemis; the official title dates from Caracalla's reign. The coins alone are inconclusive, but read alongside Acts as evidence for the late first century they more plausibly show that Ephesians could already call their city neokoros of Artemis. Acts 19 is evidence mainly for Luke's own time." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Counts the neokoros title in Acts 19:35 among Luke's specific local knowledge. Reported via Witetschek 2009, not checked in Hemer directly." }, { "author": "J. Keil", "work": "Die erste Kaiserneokorie von Ephesos (Numismatische Zeitschrift 12)", "year": "1919", "view": "Rejected the idea of a Neronian imperial neokorate and took the neokoros title on the coins of AD 65/6 to refer to Artemis. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "F. Kirbihler", "work": "Les grands-prêtres d'Éphèse: aspects institutionnels et sociaux de l'asiarchie (in Pathways to Power, ed. A. D. Rizakis and F. Camia)", "year": "2008", "view": "Supports a provincial neokorate granted to Ephesus under Nero, arguing that Tacitus could have passed over it. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "R. I. Pervo", "work": "Acts (Hermeneia)", "year": "2009", "view": "Suspects that the neokoros title in Acts 19:35 may be a slight anachronism. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "A. Burnett, M. Amandry and P. P. Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage I: From the Death of Caesar to the Death of Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992", "view": "Catalogues the Neronian neokoroi coins of Ephesus as RPC I 2626-2628. The online note on 2628 says its legend is mostly illegible, assigns it to the group by type and style, and allows that the bees may symbolize the Artemis temple." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q43018", "label": "Temple of Ephesian Artemis" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1553679", "label": "neocorus (temple-warden office and title)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "873985034", "label": "Temple of Artemis, Ephesus" } ], "title": "以弗所作為亞底米的神廟守護者：錢幣、銘文與小神龕問題", "summary": "《使徒行傳》19:35是最早明確給予以弗所“亞底米神廟守護者”稱號的文本。公元65／66年的錢幣稱以弗所人為neokoroi，卻沒有指明是哪座神廟；銘文要到約公元200年起才加上“亞底米的”。公元104年和羅馬時期的銘文證實有神廟官員、銀匠和銀製的亞底米像。此處審閱的資料沒有辨認出任何銀製的亞底米小神龕（有別於小雕像）。", "dating": "約公元前334年至公元244年（一組資料）：以亞底米的neokoros作為個人職銜，約公元前334年（IPriene 231）；尼祿時期的錢幣，公元65／66年；薩盧塔里斯基金，公元104年；銘文中以“亞底米的neokoros”作為城市稱號，公元200／210年至244年", "currentLocation": "以弗所遺址及亞底米神廟遺址（土耳其塞爾丘克）；IPriene 231出土於普里恩。薩盧塔里斯銘文和neopoioi銘文是根據大英博物館的石刻，以GIBM 481和578刊佈的；目前所在地點未與大英博物館的記錄核對。RPC記錄RPC I 2628唯一已知的標本藏於大英博物館；2626-2627的標本則分藏於多個收藏機構。", "establishes": [ "公元65／66年在以弗所鑄造的青銅錢幣稱以弗所人為neokoroi：RPC I 2626-2627列出省長Aviola和官長Aichmokles的名字，2628則按類型和風格歸入同一批發行。這座城市在保羅居留後約十年使用這個稱號，早於其第一個有確切證據的皇帝崇拜neokoros地位（弗拉維王朝神廟，Friesen定為公元89／90年）。錢幣上的銘文沒有指明是哪座神廟。", "早在保羅之前很久，neokoros已是亞底米神廟一個公認的職位。一方在普里恩發現、約公元前334年的銘文，表彰Megabyxos之子Megabyxos（受表彰者本人的名字為復原所得）為以弗所亞底米的neokoros（IPriene 231）。", "從約公元200年起，以弗所的銘文在城市的皇帝崇拜neokoros稱號之外，也稱這座城市為亞底米的neokoros：IEph 2040（劇場修繕，公元200／210年）、IEph 300（公元214／217年；三度為neokoros，兩次屬皇帝，一次屬亞底米）和IEph 4336（公元244年），後者還提到民眾的書記和兩位neopoioi。IEph 2040可能略早於卡拉卡拉在位時的那次授予，Witetschek視那次授予為正式授予。", "公元104年，薩盧塔里斯基金（IEph 27）奉獻了一尊金製的亞底米像和數尊銀像（完整總數為復原所得）。一項議會法令規定把這些像從亞底米神廟的門廊抬到公民大會和賽會，並由neopoioi（神廟官員）隨行。一座年代不詳的羅馬時期墳墓（IEph 2212）屬於一位同時是neopoios的銀匠，由銀匠的synedrion負責照管。", "公元二世紀的保薩尼亞斯寫道，所有城市都敬拜以弗所的亞底米，個人也尊崇她在眾神之上（4.31.8）。這段較晚的材料與《使徒行傳》19:27中她受普世敬拜的說法相呼應，但它證明的是她在保薩尼亞斯時代的聲望，而非公元50年代的情況。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能證明底米丟、劇場中的暴動或城裡書記的講話確如《使徒行傳》19:23–41所敘述的那樣發生過。它顯示的是這個城市與宗教背景合乎情理。", "它不能證明有銀製的亞底米小神龕。薩盧塔里斯的銀器是小雕像。1890年，Hicks不知道以弗所有任何金屬製的亞底米神龕，此處審閱的資料也沒有增添任何例子。貴金屬器物很少留存，所以這種沉默只是薄弱的證據。", "它不能證明“亞底米的neokoros”在公元50年代是正式的城市稱號。尼祿時期的錢幣沒有指明神廟，而提及亞底米的措辭要到約公元200年起才出現在銘文中。", "IEph 1578A在殘缺的紀年套語中提到一位Demetrios，其職位已佚；又把Menophilos之子Demetrios列為第一位neopoios；兩者可能是同一人，也可能不是。兩者都不能認定為《使徒行傳》19:24中的那位銀匠。" ], "debate": "“亞底米的neokoros”在保羅的時代是否已經通行？Keil（1919）把尼祿時期的錢幣讀作指亞底米，獲Friesen認同。Burrell和Kirbihler把這些錢幣與尼祿在位時授予的一座皇帝崇拜神廟聯繫起來；但Burrell仍認為《使徒行傳》19:35反映的是公元50年代，因為他認為從以弗所獲得皇帝崇拜neokoros地位起到三世紀初，這個稱號都不適合以弗所。Witetschek認為單憑錢幣無法下定論，但他把《使徒行傳》19:35讀作證據，顯示在路加所處的一世紀末，以弗所人可以使用這個稱號，這反過來使Keil對錢幣的讀法更為可信。Pervo懷疑這是輕微的時代錯置。關於底米丟的神龕，Ramsay提出那是用陶土、大理石和銀製成的女神小神龕；Hicks則傾向小雕像，並把底米丟認定為neopoioi的一位官員；Rogers認為這種認定只是推測。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "非正式稱號早已使用（《使徒行傳》符合公元50年代）", "statement": "在任何皇帝崇拜神廟出現之前，以弗所已非正式地自稱為亞底米的neokoros，而公元65／66年尼祿時期錢幣上的銘文指的是亞底米（Keil，獲Friesen認同；RPC對2628的註釋也考慮過亞底米神廟的可能）。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》19:35中城裡書記的話符合保羅的時代，儘管《使徒行傳》是最早明確給予這座城市這個亞底米稱號的文本。" }, { "label": "尼祿時期的錢幣指皇帝崇拜神廟", "statement": "公元65／66年的錢幣反映的是一座在尼祿在位時授予、在他死後中斷的行省皇帝崇拜神廟（Burrell、Kirbihler）。這樣，這些錢幣就與亞底米稱號無關，而《使徒行傳》19:35便是這個稱號唯一的一世紀證據。Witetschek認為這個理論更多建基於推測和資料空白，而非明確的證據。" }, { "label": "路加自己的時代，或時代錯置", "statement": "這個說法反映的是《使徒行傳》成書時，即一世紀末，以弗所人如何理解自己的城市（Witetschek）；也可能是輕微的時代錯置（Pervo）。無論哪種情況，它都是路加所處背景的證據，而不是公元50年代所說話語的記錄。" }, { "label": "底米丟的神龕是什麼？", "statement": "它們可能是出售給人作奉獻之用的女神小神龕：便宜的是陶土製，較貴的是大理石或銀製（Ramsay）。Hicks認為像薩盧塔里斯像那樣的金屬小雕像更有可能，並把底米丟認定為IEph 1578A紀年套語中的Demetrios，視他為neopoioi的主管。Rogers認為這種認定只是推測。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/ephesus-artemis-neokoros" }, { "id": "ephesus-officials", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 114, "corpusReferences": [ "I.Ephesos 508 (PHI PH248466; McCabe, Ephesos 753)", "I.Ephesos 234 (PHI PH248454; McCabe, Ephesos 741)", "I.Ephesos 424 (PHI PH247993; McCabe, Ephesos 285)", "I.Ephesos 858 (PHI PH248477; McCabe, Ephesos 763)", "Suppl. Ephes. 241 (PHI PH255995; new fragments of the donor list I.Ephesos 1687)", "Suppl. Ephes. 142+0144 (PHI PH255972)", "SEG 57.1220 (PHI PH348884)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:31", "Acts 19:35-41", "Acts 19:23-41" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History, Book 4 (quoting the Martyrdom of Polycarp), Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1", "locator": "Hist. eccl. 4.15.27", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "year": "1890", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "they cried out and asked the Asiarch Philip to let a lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said that it was not lawful for him, since he had closed the games.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (10th ed., CCEL text)", "locator": "ch. XII §5, 'Demetrius the Silversmith'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "year": "1907 (10th ed.; first published 1895)", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Asiarchs, or High Priests of Asia, were the heads of the imperial, political-religious organisation of the province in the worship of \"Rome and the Emperors\"", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Steven J. Friesen", "work": "Asiarchs (Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 126)", "year": "1999", "view": "Uses a systematic count of attestations to argue that identifying Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia is wrong, and that Magie's conclusion that Asiarchs were a special category of agonothete is more likely. Notes that Asiarch titles begin to appear in the public record only in the late first century AD." }, { "author": "R. A. Kearsley", "work": "Asiarchs, Archiereis, and the Archiereiai of Asia (Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 27)", "year": "1986", "view": "Argues that high priestesses of Asia held a real office, not an honorary one. In at least two cases (AD 130/1 and 217/8) a husband was Asiarch while his wife was high priestess of Asia in the same year, which she argues shows that the Asiarch's office was not the provincial high priesthood." }, { "author": "Stephan Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "His abstract states that the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 call into question their identification with the provincial high priests. He grants that the office existed before AD 89/90, citing Strabo's Asiarchs at Tralles, but reads Acts 19:31 as an updating from Luke's own time, when the office had gained new prominence." }, { "author": "Jürgen Deininger", "work": "Die Provinziallandtage der römischen Kaiserzeit von Augustus bis zum Ende des dritten Jahrhunderts n. Chr.", "year": "1965", "view": "Defended the identification of Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia. Friesen (1999) calls it the last significant exposition of that view, and Witetschek (2009) cites it for the majority position." }, { "author": "M. Rossner", "work": "Asiarchen und Archiereis Asias (Studii Clasice 16)", "year": "1974", "view": "Supported the identification of Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia. Reported via Friesen 1999 and Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "D. Magie", "work": "Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century After Christ", "year": "1950", "view": "Concluded that Asiarchs were a special category of agonothete (games-president), the view Friesen 1999 develops. Reported via Friesen 1999." }, { "author": "F. Kirbihler", "work": "Les grands-prêtres d'Éphèse: aspects institutionnels et sociaux de l'asiarchie (in Pathways to Power, ed. A. D. Rizakis and F. Camia)", "year": "2008", "view": "Suggests that Acts 19:31 results from a Flavian rewriting in which Luke used a term of his own time, incorrectly, for an office of Paul's time. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Counted the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 among Luke's specific local knowledge and held that their friendship with Paul should not be dismissed as highly unlikely. Reported via Witetschek 2009." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q727844", "label": "Asiarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q47611", "label": "Ephesus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" } ], "title": "以弗所的城中書記與亞細亞首領", "summary": "銘文顯示，《使徒行傳》在以弗所暴動中所用的兩個頭銜都是真實的。一份提庇留在位時期的法令殘片，在一位民眾的grammateus（書記，名字已佚）任內獲得批准；一份公元92／93年的奉獻銘文，則以Tiberius Claudius Aristion擔任grammateus和“亞細亞首領”來紀年。這些文本都沒有提到保羅或暴動。以弗所的亞細亞首領銘文要到一世紀末才出現，而亞細亞首領究竟是什麼，至今仍有爭議。", "dating": "此年代範圍只涵蓋以弗所的銘文，從提庇留在位時期（公元14至37年）至公元102／114年。來自利底亞Silandos的SEG 57.1220，編者定為公元前一世紀，但它必定晚於公元前29／27年；另有人傾向定為公元一世紀。經由優西比烏引述的《坡旅甲殉道記》屬公元二世紀中葉。", "currentLocation": "以弗所的文本都在以弗所（土耳其塞爾丘克）發現，只有Suppl. Ephes. 241的殘片c發現於Pamucak。SEG 57.1220來自利底亞的Silandos（發現地點為Tamasis/Selmanhacılar）。這些石刻目前的所在地點未經核查。《坡旅甲殉道記》以文本形式流傳，此處經由優西比烏引述。", "establishes": [ "早在保羅居留之前，以弗所已有一位稱為民眾的grammateus（書記）的城市官員。一份法令殘片按其套語定於提庇留在位時期（公元14至37年），它在提庇留的大祭司和一位民眾的grammateus（名字已佚）任內獲得批准，並得到“strategoi和民眾的grammateus”的同意。後來多米田和圖拉真在位時的奉獻銘文，都以grammateus來紀年。", "在以弗所以外，亞細亞首領可能早在保羅之前已有證據。一份來自利底亞Silandos的文本（SEG 57.1220）表彰Tiberius [Iulius?] Damas為亞細亞首領和sebastophant。編者把它定於公元前一世紀，但奧古斯都崇拜的頭銜要求年代晚於公元前29／27年，而Campanile傾向公元一世紀（據Witetschek 2009的報告）。", "同一批顯要人物可以兼任這兩種職位。Ti. Claudius Aristion在公元88／89年是“亞細亞的大祭司”（I.Ephesos 234），在公元92／93年則是grammateus和“亞細亞首領”（I.Ephesos 508）；一般認為與他是同一人的Claudius Aristion，在公元102／114年是“三任亞細亞首領”（I.Ephesos 424）。T. Flavius Pythion在公元104／105年第二次擔任grammateus，同時是亞細亞首領（I.Ephesos 858）。", "暴動敘事中的頭銜（《使徒行傳》19:31和《使徒行傳》19:35）都是真實的：grammateus在保羅之前已見於以弗所；亞細亞首領則從一世紀末起見於以弗所，在亞細亞其他地方可能更早。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些文本都沒有提到保羅、底米丟、暴動，或《使徒行傳》19:35中那位沒有具名的城裡書記。它們證實的是頭銜和背景，而不是《使徒行傳》所敘述的事件。", "它們不能確定亞細亞首領是什麼、做什麼。這個頭銜可能是行省皇帝崇拜大祭司的另一個名稱，可能是與資助賽會相關的獨立榮銜，也可能是城市職位。", "以弗所的亞細亞首領銘文始於弗拉維王朝晚期（約公元89／90年）。單憑這些銘文，無法顯示《使徒行傳》19:31反映的是公元50年代還是路加自己的時代；此處引用的文本中，只有SEG 57.1220可能較早，而它的年代並不確定。", "優西比烏所引用的《坡旅甲殉道記》來自士每拿，約在保羅之後一個世紀。它顯示的是那裡有一位亞細亞首領主持賽會，而不是公元50年代以弗所的做法。" ], "debate": "從Ramsay到Deininger和Rossner，許多學者都把“亞細亞首領”讀作亞細亞行省皇帝崇拜大祭司的別稱。Kearsley（1986）和Friesen（1999）則主張這兩個頭銜是分開的，Friesen並重提Magie的看法，認為亞細亞首領是一類特殊的賽會主持人。按優西比烏的引述，《坡旅甲殉道記》記載亞細亞首領腓力拒絕放出獅子，因為他已經結束了賽會。第二個問題是年代。Witetschek承認這個職位在公元89／90年之前已經存在，並引用斯特拉波所記奧古斯都時代特拉勒斯的亞細亞首領為證，但他主張此後這個職位新獲得的顯赫地位，使《使徒行傳》19:31成為按路加自己時代所作的更新。Kirbihler稱之為弗拉維時期的改寫；Hemer則把亞細亞首領算作路加的在地知識之一。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "亞細亞首領即行省大祭司", "statement": "按這種看法，“亞細亞首領”是亞細亞皇帝崇拜大祭司的另一個頭銜。這樣，《使徒行傳》19:31中的幾位亞細亞首領，便是保留頭銜的前任者（Deininger），或是行省各神廟的大祭司。Witetschek反駁說，這類神廟只有兩三座，任期為一年，而且以弗所銘文對前任亞細亞首領的稱呼方式不同。" }, { "label": "亞細亞首領是獨立的榮銜", "statement": "按這種看法，亞細亞首領是一種獨立而人數較多的榮銜。對Friesen來說（依循Magie），他們是一類特殊的賽會主持人（agonothetes）；Kearsley後來則提出他們是城市官長（據Friesen 1999的報告）。無論哪種情況，以弗所都可能同時有幾位亞細亞首領，而與皇帝崇拜大祭司職位無關。" }, { "label": "來自路加自己時代的地方色彩", "statement": "《使徒行傳》19:31中的亞細亞首領反映的是《使徒行傳》成書時、這個職位獲得新的顯赫地位之後的情況：這是一種更新，而不是時代錯置（Witetschek 2009）；或是弗拉維時期的改寫，把較晚的稱呼套用在保羅時代的一個職位上（Kirbihler，據Witetschek的報告）。無論哪種情況，這節經文都更多是路加的世界的證據，而不是保羅的世界的證據。" }, { "label": "對保羅時代的追憶", "statement": "在弗拉維王朝神廟出現之前，已有較早類型的亞細亞首領，所以路加可能指的是他們；他們與保羅的友誼也不必被視為不大可能而遭否定（Hemer，據Witetschek的報告）。Witetschek承認這有可能，但傾向把這節經文讀作一種更新。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-ephesus-officials" }, { "id": "thessalonica-politarchs", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -27, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [ "CIG 1967", "GIBM II 171" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:1-9", "Acts 17:5-9", "Acts 17:6", "Acts 17:8", "Acts 19:29", "Acts 20:4", "Romans 16:21" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.jason" ], "placeIds": [ "place.thessalonica", "place.macedonia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "C. T. Newton (ed.)", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part II", "year": "1883", "locator": "GIBM II no. CLXXI (171), Macedonia section", "url": "https://archive.org/download/collectionofanci00brit/collectionofanci00brit_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. X, sec. 6, p. 227", "url": "https://archive.org/download/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The curious and rare title \"politarchs\" was given to the supreme board of magistrates at Thessalonica, as is proved by an inscription.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Golden Gate (Thessaloniki), alias Vardar Gate", "locator": "Q96631855", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php?action=wbgetentities&ids=Q96631855&props=labels%7Cdescriptions%7Caliases%7Cclaims%7Csitelinks&languages=en%7Cel%7Cde%7Cfr&format=json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades: Thessalonica", "locator": "491741", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/491741/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Ernest DeWitt Burton", "work": "The Politarchs, American Journal of Theology 2", "year": "1898", "view": "Collects 17 inscriptions attesting politarchs (19 with probable restorations). Shows that Thessalonica had politarchs from Augustus to Antoninus Pius, dates the Vardar Gate block after 30 BC and possibly as late as AD 143 or later, and records the office also in Thrace, Bithynia, the Bosporus and Egypt." }, { "author": "Illinois Greek Club (trans.)", "work": "Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodotus, Onasander (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1923", "view": "In a note on Aeneas Tacticus 26.12, observes that this rare title occurs elsewhere almost exclusively at Thessalonica and its vicinity, and suggests Aeneas met it during military service in the north Aegean." }, { "author": "Charles Edson", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae X 2,1: Inscriptiones Thessalonicae et viciniae", "year": "1972", "view": "The standard corpus of Thessalonian inscriptions. Athanasiadis (2026) reports that Edson dated the politarch list IG X 2,1 126 to the 2nd century AD." }, { "author": "G. H. R. Horsley", "work": "The Politarchs, in D. W. J. Gill and C. Gempf (eds.), The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting", "year": "1994", "view": "Collects and analyses the non-literary evidence for politarchs; later epigraphers and New Testament scholars cite it as a standard reference on the office." }, { "author": "G. H. R. Horsley", "work": "Politarchs in Macedonia and Beyond, Mediterranean Archaeology 7", "year": "1994", "view": "Collects and analyses the non-literary evidence for politarchs in Macedonia and elsewhere; later epigraphers cite it as a standard reference on the office." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Applies epigraphic and archaeological evidence about local titles and institutions to the historicity of Acts, arguing that the author was well informed about the places he describes." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Argues that Acts was written in the early 2nd century (about AD 115). On this view, accurate local titles cannot by themselves secure an early date." }, { "author": "Manuela Mari", "work": "Istituzioni cittadine della Macedonia preromana: alcune novità epigrafiche, Historika 7", "year": "2017", "view": "Argues that the ephebarchic law from Amphipolis, a royal-period text recopied in 24/3 BC, settles that politarchs existed before the Roman settlement of 167 BC, while their spread to all Macedonian cities, and probably the growth in their numbers, belongs to the Roman period." }, { "author": "Bradley Ritter", "work": "On the 'politeuma in Heracleopolis', Scripta Classica Israelica 30", "year": "2011", "view": "Reads the petitions to the politarches in the Ptolemaic Heracleopolis papyri as addressed to that city's civic politeuma, not to the head of a Jewish association as their editors proposed. Either way, the title also occurs in Ptolemaic Egypt." }, { "author": "Giorgos Athanasiadis", "work": "Roman Rule and Local Society in the Province of Macedonia: The Case of Thessaloniki, CHS Research Bulletin 14", "year": "2026", "view": "Dates a politarch list he cites as IG X 2,1 126, described in terms that fit the Vardar Gate text (a first politarch named with his mother and his father's full Roman name, two officials surnamed Rheglos), to the early 1st century AD, saying it was rightly redated from Edson's 2nd-century date on prosopographical grounds." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q96631855", "label": "Golden Gate (Vardar Gate), Thessaloniki" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7210123", "label": "Politarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q17151", "label": "Thessaloniki" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "491741", "label": "Thessalonica" } ], "title": "帖撒羅尼迦的politarch銘文與瓦爾達爾門石刻", "summary": "帖撒羅尼迦出土的銘文顯示，《使徒行傳》17:6和17:8用正確的頭銜politarchs稱呼該城的最高長官：從奧古斯都時代到公元143年的銘文，都列出由五人或六人組成的長官團。現藏大英博物館的一塊瓦爾達爾門石塊，按通常的讀法列出六人，但其年代有爭議。這個頭銜在文學作品中罕見，在馬其頓的銘文中卻很常見。這些石刻並沒有證實《使徒行傳》17:1–9中的任何事件、擔保或人物。", "dating": "瓦爾達爾門石塊上沒有紀年格式。Burton把它定於公元前30年之後，並可能晚至公元143年或更晚；Athanasiadis把他引作IG X 2,1 126的一份名單（他對該名單的描述與這篇銘文相符）定於公元一世紀初，而不是Edson所定的二世紀。帖撒羅尼迦其他的politarch銘文，年代從奧古斯都在位期間延至公元143年。", "currentLocation": "倫敦大英博物館（瓦爾達爾門石塊；據GIBM，由J. E. Blunt於1877年贈送）。出自卡拉馬里亞門的奧古斯都時代politarch銘文已經佚失（Burton）。", "establishes": [ "帖撒羅尼迦的最高市政長官組成一個稱為politarchs的長官團，也就是英文譯本在《使徒行傳》17:6和17:8中稱為該城統治者的官員。出自卡拉馬里亞門、現已佚失的一篇奧古斯都時代銘文列出五人，公元143年的一篇銘文列出六人，瓦爾達爾門石塊按通常的讀法也列出六人。這與耶孫和其他信徒被帶到其面前的那個由多人組成的長官團相符。", "在現存的希臘文獻中，這個頭銜只見於《使徒行傳》；戰術家埃涅阿斯（Aeneas Tacticus）26.12（公元前四世紀中葉）有一個相關的形式politarchos。銘文經常證實這一職位，而且絕大部分出自馬其頓。可見《使徒行傳》使用的是一個精確的地區用語，而不是泛指統治者的一般詞語。", "公元143年的銘文還提到該城的議會（boule）和民眾（demos）；當群眾想把宣教者帶出來交給民眾時，《使徒行傳》17:5–9所預設的正是這種城市環境。不過，議會和公民大會是希臘城市的標準設置，所以這個細節並不獨特；真正獨特的吻合在於politarch這個頭銜。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它沒有證實《使徒行傳》17:1–9中的任何事件：無論是會堂中的講道、騷亂、耶孫的接待，還是向耶孫和其他人所取的擔保。", "這一職位的證據，從公元前167年羅馬的善後安排之前（按Mari對暗妃波里青年訓練官法的讀法）一直延續到公元三世紀，見於馬其頓的許多城鎮及其以外的地區。因此，正確使用這個頭銜本身，既不能確定《使徒行傳》的年代，也不能證明其作者是目擊者。", "石塊上的Sosipatros、Secundus和Gaius都是常見的名字。Secundus是第一位politarch的父親，Gaius則是另一位politarch Gaius Agilleius Poteitus的首名，因此這些名字不能用來認定《使徒行傳》19:29和20:4中的西公都或該猶，也不能用來認定《羅馬書》16:21中的所西巴德。" ], "debate": "懸而未決的問題包括瓦爾達爾門石塊的年代。Boeckh把它定於弗拉維王朝或更晚（不早於公元69年），但這是基於一個讀錯的名字；Burton把它定於公元前30年之後，並可能晚至公元143年或更晚；Athanasiadis報告，一份他引作IG X 2,1 126的名單（看來就是這篇銘文）已被重新定於一世紀初，與Edson所定的二世紀不同。按通常的讀法，石塊列出六位politarchs，但Mordtmann認為也可能是五位。更大的問題是，一個正確的頭銜能為《使徒行傳》的可靠性增添多少分量：Hemer把這類細節算作作者消息靈通的證據，而Pervo則把《使徒行傳》定於約公元115年。有說法指學者在這塊石碑出現之前一直懷疑這個頭銜，但這種說法並無根據：石碑早在1740年已經刊佈，而十九世紀的新約詞典也已引用它（Burton）。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "消息靈通但年代較晚的作者", "statement": "Burton的證據顯示，politarchs一直延續到公元三世紀，所以一位在二世紀初寫作、消息靈通的作者（正如Pervo對《使徒行傳》的主張）仍能正確使用這個頭銜。按這種看法，這些銘文證實的是背景的準確，而不是較早的成書年代或目擊者的敘述。" }, { "label": "累積論證中的一項準確細節", "statement": "Hemer等人把這個正確的頭銜，視為《使徒行傳》中眾多精確的地方細節之一；這些細節合起來，指向一位對所描述的地方有深入認識的作者。即使按這種看法，這些銘文證實的也是頭銜，而不是那段情節。" }, { "label": "屬於馬其頓的用語，而非帖撒羅尼迦獨有", "statement": "politarchs也見於馬其頓的其他城鎮，以及色雷斯、庇推尼和博斯普魯斯；埃及赫拉克利奧波利斯出土的托勒密時期紙草中，也出現了一位politarches。因此，這個用語適用於一般的馬其頓城市，而不是帖撒羅尼迦獨有的內行細節；不過，帖撒羅尼迦提供的證據所佔比例異常地大。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/thessalonica-politarchs" }, { "id": "sergius-paulus-inscriptions", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 96, "corpusReferences": [ "CIL VI 31545", "ILS 5926", "EDR127293", "TM 281782", "EDH HD046352", "AE 2002, 1457", "TM 176947", "EDH HD046353", "AE 2002, 1458", "TM 176948", "IGR III 300", "Sterrett, EJ 134,108", "JRS 3 (1913) 262,5", "IGR III 930", "ABSA 42 (1947) 201,1", "IGR III 935", "SEG 20:302", "SEG 55:1526", "Myres 1914, no. 1903" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:6-12", "Acts 13:7" ], "personIds": [ "person.sergius-paulus", "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.elymas", "person.claudius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.cyprus", "place.paphos", "place.pisidian-antioch" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL 06, 31545 (p 3796, 4362) = ILS 5926; TM 281782", "locator": "EDCS-19500065 (CIL 06, 31545 (p 3796, 4362) = ILS 5926; TM 281782)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/195/19500065.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: honorific base of L. Sergius Paullus filius, Antiochia Pisidiae", "locator": "EDH HD046352 (AE 2002, 1457; TM 176947)", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/data/api/inschrift/suche?hd_nr=HD046352", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: fragment naming Paullus Ser[gius] and L. Serg[ius], Antiochia Pisidiae", "locator": "EDH HD046353 (AE 2002, 1458; TM 176948)", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/data/api/inschrift/suche?hd_nr=HD046353", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "John L. Myres", "work": "Handbook of the Cesnola Collection of Antiquities from Cyprus (Metropolitan Museum of Art)", "year": "1914", "locator": "no. 1903, p. 319 (appendix text p. 548)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/handbookofcesnol00metruoft/handbookofcesnol00metruoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. IV, p. 74", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "dated \"in the proconsulship of Paulus,\" who probably is the same governor that played a part in the strange and interesting scene now to be described.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "work": "Roman History (Loeb Classical Library, vol. VI)", "year": "1917", "locator": "54.4.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It was at this time that he restored to the people both Cyprus and Gallia Narbonensis as districts no longer needing the presence of his armies; and thus proconsuls began to be sent to those provinces also.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament", "year": "1915", "view": "Proposed, as a hypothesis, that the Antioch L. Sergius Paullus was the proconsul's son, whom he inferred governed Galatia about AD 72-74, and that Sergia Paulla was the proconsul's daughter. Held that Christianity passed into this female line, while the son's branch stayed pagan." }, { "author": "R. Cagnat (ed.)", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes III", "year": "1906", "view": "Suggests that the Quintus Ser[gius] of no. 935 was perhaps proconsul of Cyprus, and doubts that the Paulus of no. 930 is L. Sergius Paullus." }, { "author": "T. B. Mitford", "work": "Notes on Some Published Inscriptions of Roman Cyprus (Annual of the British School at Athens 42)", "year": "1947", "view": "Re-edited the Soli epitaph. As reported by van Elderen, he read the Paulus year as 10, computed AD 50 at the earliest if it is a Claudian regnal year, judged the inscription probably considerably later, and thought Myres's restoration at Kythrea at least plausible." }, { "author": "Bastiaan Van Elderen", "work": "Some Archaeological Observations on Paul's First Missionary Journey, in Apostolic History and the Gospel (ed. W. W. Gasque and R. P. Martin)", "year": "1970", "view": "Held that the Soli text cannot be tied to the Acts proconsul and that the Tiber-curator identification is unproven, since nothing links L. Sergius Paullus to Cyprus. Rejected Ramsay's family theory, and thought the Kythrea fragment the most attractive candidate, with reservation." }, { "author": "Douglas A. Campbell", "work": "Possible Inscriptional Attestation to Sergius Paul[l]us (Acts 13:6-12), and the Implications for Pauline Chronology (Journal of Theological Studies n.s. 56)", "year": "2005", "view": "Restores Tiberius and Quintus Sergius Paul[l]us, probably the governor, in the Kythrea text. On that cautious restoration, Paul's first journey took place during or before AD 37, about ten years earlier than usually thought." }, { "author": "Jonathan Bernier", "work": "When Paul Met Sergius: An Assessment of Douglas Campbell's Pauline Chronology for the Years 36 to 37 (Journal of Biblical Literature 138)", "year": "2019", "view": "Judges Campbell's reconstruction not impossible on the present data, but improbable enough that it should be rejected." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2566388", "label": "Sergius Paulus, proconsul of Cyprus" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "281782", "label": "CIL VI 31545, Tiber cippus naming L. Sergius Paullus" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "176947", "label": "Base of L. Sergius Paullus filius, Pisidian Antioch (EDH HD046352)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "609307", "label": "Antiochia/Col. Caesarea (Pisidian Antioch)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "707624", "label": "Soloi/Aipeia? (Cyprus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "707496", "label": "Chyt(h)roi (Kythrea, Cyprus)" } ], "title": "可能提及省長士求．保羅的銘文", "summary": "沒有任何現存銘文能確切地提到《使徒行傳》13:7中的省長士求．保羅。羅馬一塊克勞第時期的界石提到一位元老L. Sergius Paullus；彼西底的安提阿在同一世紀稍後有名為Sergii Paulli的人物；索利（Soli）的一篇墓誌銘提到某人在一位名叫Paulus的省長任內擔任的職務；基特里亞（Kythrea）的一塊殘片則被讀作提到一位Quintus Serg-。這些銘文顯示，這個名字符合當時一位元老的身分，但每一項與塞浦路斯總督的聯繫，都建基於復原、推論或沒有年代的文本。", "dating": "羅馬界石：公元41至54年（克勞第在位時期；EDR認為是41至47年）。基特里亞殘片：大都會藝術博物館的紀錄定為一世紀上半葉，van Elderen根據字體定為一世紀，皇帝的名字則被復原為提庇留或克勞第。索利墓誌銘：晚於克勞第（PHI）；其中提到的Paulus年份較早，且沒有註明紀元。彼西底的安提阿：Sergia Paulla銘文為公元81至96年；L. Sergius Paullus filius的基座沒有年代（Ramsay把內容相同的Salir文本的字體定於公元60至100年）。", "currentLocation": "羅馬，羅馬國家博物館，米開朗基羅迴廊，館藏編號242（台伯河界石，據EDR）。紐約，大都會藝術博物館，切斯諾拉收藏，登錄號74.51.2425（基特里亞殘片，據大都會藝術博物館的紀錄）。索利和彼西底的安提阿石刻的現藏地點未經核實。", "establishes": [ "約公元前22年，奧古斯都把塞浦路斯交還人民管治（狄奧，54.4.1），此後該島由省長治理；因此，正如Ramsay所強調，《使徒行傳》對這位島上總督所用的頭銜符合那個時期。", "出自羅馬台伯河的一塊界石（CIL VI 31545 = ILS 5926）奉克勞第的授權設立（公元41至54年），列出L. Sergius Paullus為負責河岸與河道的五位管理官之一。可見，一位同時擁有《使徒行傳》所記這兩個名字的元老，曾在克勞第治下於羅馬擔任公職。", "彼西底的安提阿的一座沒有年代的榮譽基座（EDH HD046352）提到Lucius之子L. Sergius Paullus，稱為filius（小），處於元老仕途的早期：曾任道路管理官（IIIIvir viarum curandarum）、legio VI Ferrata的軍事保民官，以及財務官。Ramsay根據1912年在Salir抄錄的副本，刊佈了一篇相同的文本。另一塊殘片（EDH HD046353）尊崇一位Paullus Ser[gius]的岳母。", "彼西底的安提阿一篇公元81至96年的希臘文榮譽銘文（IGR III 300）提到Lucius之女[Ser]gia(?) Paulla，她是圖密善派駐呂家和旁非利亞的使節C. Caristanius Fronto的妻子；Sergia這個名字有部分是復原的。連同那座基座，這篇銘文指向一個在一世紀後期於彼西底的安提阿受到尊崇的元老家族Sergii Paulli。", "索利的一篇墓誌銘（IGR III 930）記載，Apollonios以監察官的身分，在第十年、一位名叫Paulus的省長任內修訂了議會名冊（頭銜部分為復原；沒有註明紀元）。基特里亞的一塊殘片（IGR III 935）被讀作Quintus Serg-，旁邊是一位名字已佚的皇帝。編者把它復原為一個提及該總督的紀年格式，但Rigsby的讀法不同。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些銘文都沒有確切地提到《使徒行傳》13:7中的省長。羅馬的石刻沒有提到任何塞浦路斯的職位，索利的文本只有Paulus一名，而基特里亞殘片上的Paulus和「省長」兩詞，完全是編者的復原。", "它們不能確定保羅到訪塞浦路斯的年代。基特里亞文本的各種復原，從提庇留（Campbell：不晚於公元37年）到克勞第（SEG 20.302：公元46至48年）不等，而索利銘文中的Paulus年份並沒有註明紀元。", "它們不能證明彼西底的安提阿的Sergii Paulli是那位塞浦路斯總督的後裔，也不能證明他或他的親屬成了基督徒。Ramsay對這個家族的重構，建基於從名字和沉默所作的推論，他本人也稱之為假說。這些石刻也沒有證實以呂馬的事件。" ], "debate": "《使徒行傳》中的省長是否見於任何銘文？許多人把他認定為台伯河管理官L. Sergius Paullus，因為塞浦路斯的省長任期可以在克勞第時期的管理官任期之前或之後。但正如van Elderen所強調，沒有任何文本把此人與塞浦路斯聯繫起來，而且《使徒行傳》沒有記下首名。索利的Paulus沒有族名：據van Elderen報告，Mitford推算最早是公元50年，並判斷這篇銘文很可能晚得多；而Ramsay較早的讀法，則把這個短語當作石刻本身的日期。基特里亞殘片只存Quintus Serg-，因此Myres否定兩者有關聯。Campbell復原為提庇留，並把這次到訪定於不晚於公元37年，Bernier則認為這個年表不大可能成立。Van Elderen認為Ramsay關於彼西底的安提阿家族的理論過於臆測，因而予以否定。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "認定為台伯河管理官", "statement": "按這種看法，《使徒行傳》13:7中的省長就是CIL VI 31545所記、克勞第時期的台伯河管理官L. Sergius Paullus，他在擔任該職之前或之後治理過塞浦路斯。名字和年代使這個看法顯得合理，但沒有銘文把他與塞浦路斯聯繫起來，而且《使徒行傳》沒有記下首名。" }, { "label": "基特里亞的Quintus Sergius", "statement": "按Campbell的復原，這塊殘片提到一位Quintus Serg[ius Paullus]，很可能就是那位總督；Paulus和「省長」完全是復原的。Campbell復原為提庇留，因而把塞浦路斯的宣教定於不晚於公元37年，比通常的看法早；較早的SEG 20.302讀法則復原為克勞第（46至48年）。Myres假定《使徒行傳》中的省長名叫Lucius，因而否定兩者有關聯；van Elderen則有保留地認為，這是最吸引人的候選者。" }, { "label": "Ramsay的家族假說", "statement": "Ramsay以假說的形式提出：彼西底的安提阿的L. Sergius Paullus是那位省長的兒子，Sergia Paulla是省長的女兒；基督教經由她傳給她的兒子，而男系則一直信奉異教。Van Elderen引用Lake的評語，即這些組合雖然巧妙卻不能令人信服，否定了這個構想。" }, { "label": "尚未見於銘文", "statement": "沒有任何現存銘文能確切地提到《使徒行傳》中的省長。有好幾位元老都名叫Paullus：古帕福斯（Palaepaphos）的IGR III 939提到Paullus Fabius Maximus，Dessau推斷他曾治理塞浦路斯。單憑同名，不能確定身分。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/sergius-paulus-inscriptions" }, { "id": "derbe-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 157, "dateTo": 600, "corpusReferences": [ "SEG 16.758" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 14:6", "Acts 14:20-21", "Acts 16:1", "Acts 20:4" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.timothy", "person.gaius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.derbe", "place.lystra", "place.lycaonia", "place.galatia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. S. Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens III)", "year": "1888", "locator": "p. 22 (itinerary for 5 June, Bosola to Almassen)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/papersofamerican03arch/papersofamerican03arch_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I consider that the ruins of Bosola and Losta, being so near together, represent one and the same ancient city. This city I should like to call Derbe. Stephanus Byzantinus says Derbe was a fortress of Isauria, a designation which would suit this site well enough.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. VIII §5, p. 192", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Derbe alone is not mentioned either in the tradition (so far as my knowledge extends) or in the history of the Church until we come down to A.D. 381, when its bishop Daphnus was present at the Council of Constantinople.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. V §9, p. 120", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In Derbe nothing special is recorded : the same process went on as in previous cases. Here on the limits of the Roman province the Apostles turned.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades: Derbe/Claudioderbe", "locator": "Pleiades 648620", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/648620/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Derbe (ancient city)", "locator": "Q20717624", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q20717624.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "M. Ballance", "work": "The Site of Derbe: A New Inscription (Anatolian Studies 7)", "year": "1957", "view": "Published the dedication by the council and people of Derbe that he found in 1956 at Kerti Höyük, about 22 km north-north-east of Karaman, and argued that Derbe lay north-east of Laranda rather than at the western sites proposed by Sterrett and Ramsay. Van Elderen reports that he judged the block too heavy to have travelled far." }, { "author": "M. H. Ballance", "work": "Derbe and Faustinopolis (Anatolian Studies 14)", "year": "1964", "view": "Judged that the lack of Byzantine settlement at Kerti Höyük counted against it as the city site, and reported the Michael epitaph he was shown at Sudurağı (Sidrova) in 1958. Because that stone was said to come from Devri Şehri, he proposed Devri Şehri as Derbe (as reported by Van Elderen and by Wagner and Wilson)." }, { "author": "George Ogg", "work": "Derbe (New Testament Studies 9)", "year": "1963", "view": "In light of the re-siting, judged that no compelling reason had been given for placing Derbe in the province of Galatia in Paul's time, leaving it an open question (as reported by Van Elderen and by Wagner and Wilson)." }, { "author": "Bastiaan Van Elderen", "work": "Some Archaeological Observations on Paul's First Missionary Journey, in Apostolic History and the Gospel (ed. W. W. Gasque and R. P. Martin)", "year": "1970", "view": "Was told in 1962 that the Michael stone came from Kerti Höyük, and held that Derbe lay near, and probably on, that mound. Argued that Acts 14:20 dates only the departure for Derbe and need not mean a one-day journey, and that Derbe's provincial status in Paul's day could not yet be decided." }, { "author": "Gertrud Laminger-Pascher", "work": "Die kaiserzeitlichen Inschriften Lykaoniens, Faszikel I (Ergänzungsbände zu den Tituli Asiae Minoris 15)", "year": "1992", "view": "Corpus of the imperial-period inscriptions of Lycaonia; the MAMA XI overview of southern Lykaonia cites its Derbe section." }, { "author": "Peter Thonemann (ed.)", "work": "Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua XI (Journal of Roman Studies Monograph)", "year": "2013", "view": "Its overview of southern Lykaonia calls Kerti Höyük the likely site of ancient Derbe." }, { "author": "Richard J. A. Talbert (ed.)", "work": "Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World", "year": "2000", "view": "Map 66 has an entry Derbe/Claudioderbe (cited by Pleiades). Wagner and Wilson report that the map marks Derbe/Claudioderbe at Kerti Höyük and a Derbe at Devri Şehri, leaving the centre ambiguous." }, { "author": "A. H. M. Jones", "work": "The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces", "year": "1971", "view": "As reported by Wagner and Wilson, held that Derbe probably received its Claudian prefix from Claudius himself, like Iconium and other cities refounded in his reign, and so was not in the kingdom of Antiochus IV." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Cities of St. Paul", "year": "1907", "view": "Placed Derbe at the Gudelisin mound north-west of Karaman, arguing from surface remains, road geography and a bishopric-list gloss linking Derbe with Possala; he had no inscription naming the city." }, { "author": "Cilliers Breytenbach and Christiane Zimmermann", "work": "Early Christianity in Lycaonia and Adjacent Areas: From Paul to Amphilochius of Iconium", "year": "2018", "view": "As reported by Wagner and Wilson: both mounds lie within Derbe's territory, and the city was near the Laranda-Sidamaria road. They also hold that Derbe was under Antiochus IV of Commagene, not Roman rule, when Paul visited." }, { "author": "Bob Wagner and Mark Wilson", "work": "Why Derbe? An Unlikely Lycaonian City for Paul's Ministry (Tyndale Bulletin 70.1)", "year": "2019", "view": "Review the history of attempts to locate Derbe. They hold that the two inscriptions situate it more precisely but leave the choice between Kerti Höyük and Devri Şehri open, and report that excavation begun at Kerti Höyük in 2013 did not continue and is unpublished." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "648620", "label": "Derbe/Claudioderbe" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q20717624", "label": "Derbe (ancient city)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "59721", "label": "Derbe (Kerti Hüyük)" } ], "title": "卡拉曼附近提及特庇的銘文（Kerti Höyük與Devri Şehri）", "summary": "在卡拉曼（古代的拉蘭達）東北面的平原上，有兩篇希臘文銘文提到特庇。一篇是公元157年獻給安東尼．庇護的城市獻辭，1956年在Kerti Höyük（又拼作Kerti Hüyük）發現。另一篇是較晚的特庇主教米迦勒的墓誌銘，見於附近的Sudurağı。兩者合起來，把《使徒行傳》14:20–21和16:1中的特庇定位於這一地區。兩篇都不是一世紀的銘文，而該城的確切位置仍有爭議。", "dating": "獻給安東尼．庇護的城市獻辭為公元157年（Van Elderen；Wagner和Wilson）。主教的墓誌銘只記有某個第十四小紀年的6月8日；Van Elderen判斷其字體可能屬於四世紀末至五世紀，Wagner和Wilson則定為五至六世紀。", "currentLocation": "科尼亞考古博物館（獻辭；Van Elderen 1970，以及引用McLean 2002的Wagner和Wilson 2019）。卡拉曼考古博物館花園（米迦勒墓誌銘；Wagner和Wilson 2019）。", "establishes": [ "1956年，Ballance在卡拉曼北北東約22公里處的Kerti Höyük山坡上，發現一塊刻有文字的石灰岩石塊（SEG 16.758）。它尊崇安東尼．庇護，年代為公元157年，由特庇的議會（boule）和民眾（demos）所立；已刊佈的文本把該城居民的稱謂復原為[Claudio]derbetans。", "由此可見，在二世紀中葉，特庇是一個自治的城市共同體，有自己的議會和公民大會，並以希臘城市慣常的形式尊崇皇帝。", "一篇基督徒的墓誌銘稱米迦勒為特庇「最愛神的主教」，日期只記為某個第十四小紀年的6月8日。Ballance於1958年在Sudurağı（Sidrova）見到它，Van Elderen則於1962年見到。它證明同一地區後來設有特庇主教區。", "兩篇文本合起來，把《使徒行傳》14:6、14:20–21和16:1中的特庇定位於拉蘭達東北，與路司得的直線距離約95公里。這取代了較早把它定於卡拉曼西北的各種看法（Sterrett的Bosola和Losta，後者又稱Zosta；Ramsay的Gudelisin），這些看法都沒有提及特庇的銘文支持。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "兩篇銘文都不屬於保羅的時代。獻辭晚了約一個世紀，墓誌銘就更晚。它們證實的是這座城市和後來的教會，而不是保羅和巴拿巴在那裡傳道、在那裡使人成為門徒，也不是提摩太或該猶與特庇的關係。", "兩塊石刻都不是在有紀錄的發掘中發現的。獻辭石塊躺在土丘的山坡上，而墓誌銘的發現地點，則取決於Ballance和Van Elderen各自得到的、互相矛盾的說法。因此，這些石刻不能判定城市中心是Kerti Höyük、Devri Şehri，還是一片包含兩者的更大地域。", "該城帶有克勞第之名，並不能確定它在四十年代的地位：Breytenbach和Zimmermann（據Wagner和Wilson報告）認為，這是在科馬吉尼的安條克四世治下授予的榮銜；Jones則認為這個前綴是克勞第本人所授，這樣特庇就位於安條克的王國之外。", "它們與《使徒行傳》14:20並無衝突。重新定位後，特庇距路司得約95公里，但這節經文只交代出發的日子，沒有交代抵達的日子，所以不一定表示一天的路程（Van Elderen）。" ], "debate": "Ballance判斷這塊沉重的石塊（據Van Elderen約重一噸）不大可能被搬到遠處，因此把特庇定於Kerti Höyük或其附近。1964年，他改為傾向南南東約4公里的Devri Şehri，因為Kerti Höyük沒有拜占庭時期聚落的跡象，而主教的石碑據說來自Devri Şehri。Van Elderen在1962年得到的說法是石碑來自Kerti Höyük；他又注意到附近土丘上有拜占庭時期的遺物，因此維持Kerti Höyük之說。Van Elderen、MAMA和卡拉曼省遺址清冊都傾向Kerti Höyük；據Wagner和Wilson報告，Barrington Atlas則兩處都有標示。Wagner和Wilson報告，發掘工作於2013年開始，但沒有繼續，成果也沒有刊佈。至於保羅到來時特庇是否位於羅馬的加拉太行省之內，則是另一個懸而未決的問題。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "以Devri Şehri為城址", "statement": "Ballance（1964）傾向Kerti Höyük南南東約4公里的Devri Şehri，因為Kerti Höyük沒有拜占庭時期聚落的跡象，而主教的墓誌銘據說來自Devri Şehri。Wagner和Wilson指出，IVP Atlas採用這個定位。" }, { "label": "同一地域，中心未定", "statement": "據Wagner和Wilson（2019）報告，Breytenbach和Zimmermann（2018）把兩座土丘都視為位於特庇的地域之內，並把該城定於拉蘭達至Sidamaria道路的附近，但沒有確定其城市中心。" }, { "label": "較早的西北說", "statement": "1956年以前，Sterrett（Bosola和Losta，後者又稱Zosta）和後來的Ramsay（Gudelisin，見《聖保羅的城市》，1907年）都把特庇定於卡拉曼西北，較接近路司得。Sterrett深信特庇必定位於路司得附近；Ramsay則依據地表遺跡、道路地理，以及一份晚期主教區名錄中的註解。兩人都沒有提及特庇的銘文，而近期的地圖集也已放棄這種看法。" }, { "label": "保羅時代的特庇位於行省之外", "statement": "Ogg（1963）認為，重新定位之後，保羅時代的特庇是否位於加拉太行省之內，仍然沒有定論；Van Elderen補充了錢幣證據，顯示鄰近的拉蘭達自公元41年起屬於安條克四世。Breytenbach和Zimmermann（據報告）把特庇歸於安條克四世治下，而Jones則認為其克勞第式前綴來自克勞第本人。這個問題的答案關係到《加拉太書》的南加拉太理論。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-derbe-inscription" }, { "id": "corinth-macellum", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -27, "dateTo": 50, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.2 124", "Corinth VIII.2 125", "Corinth VIII.3 321", "EDH HD058881", "EDH HD058882", "EDCS-32001248", "EDCS-08200358", "TM 177612", "TM 177613" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Corinthians 10:25", "1 Corinthians 10:23-33", "1 Corinthians 8:1-13", "Acts 18:1-18" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus (West 124 + Kent 321, copy 1)", "locator": "EDH HD058881", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD058881", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (Cowey)", "year": "2010" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus (West 125, copy 2)", "locator": "EDH HD058882", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD058882", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (Cowey)", "year": "2012" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (Corinth-08-02, 00124; Corinth-08-03, 00321)", "locator": "EDCS-32001248", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/320/32001248.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (Corinth-08-02, 00125)", "locator": "EDCS-08200358", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/082/08200358.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: Corinth macellum dedication, copy 1", "locator": "TM 177612", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/177612", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: Corinth macellum dedication, copy 2", "locator": "TM 177613", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/177613", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Henry J. Cadbury", "work": "The Macellum of Corinth (Journal of Biblical Literature 53)", "year": "1934", "view": "Cadbury believed he was the first to link the Corinthian MACELLV fragment, which he says was found in 1898, to Paul's term in 1 Corinthians 10:25. He reported West's dating to the last years of Augustus or the reign of Tiberius, questioned the assumption that both copies had identical wording and named a single Macellum Piscarium, and reported de Waele's proposal of two separate market buildings. He held that macella sold fish and other provisions as well as meat, doubted that they were necessarily close to idolatry, noted that the word's ultimate origin is disputed though it was regarded as Roman, and left the building's location open." }, { "author": "Allen Brown West", "work": "Corinth VIII.2: Latin Inscriptions, 1896-1926", "year": "1931", "view": "West published nos. 124 and 125 as dedications of a macellum by the Cornelii, with a piscarium, and on epigraphic grounds placed them in the last years of Augustus or the reign of Tiberius. Cadbury and Gill describe differently whether he inferred one combined Macellum Piscarium or a separate fish market. Known here only through their reports and the EDH and EDCS records." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Kent added a thirteenth fragment of copy 1, found in the South Basilica in 1936 (no. 321), revised West's text of no. 124, read the freedman's patron as Quintus, and translated the restored text as a meat market given with a fish market. He dated it to the reign of Augustus by the tail of the letter Q." }, { "author": "Ned Nabers", "work": "A Note on Corinth VIII, 2, 125 (American Journal of Archaeology 73)", "year": "1969", "view": "As Gill (1992) summarizes it, Nabers argued that the Cornelii are unlikely to have built two buildings serving the same function. On this view the 'macellum cum ...' formula lists features of one complex, here including provision for fish." }, { "author": "David W. J. Gill", "work": "The Meat-Market at Corinth (1 Corinthians 10:25) (Tyndale Bulletin 43.2)", "year": "1992", "view": "Gill argues that the pair of Latin inscriptions establishes a Corinthian macellum, given probably in the Augustan period by a member of the local elite, with fish facilities inside one complex. He sets aside the South Stoa graffito once read as naming a butcher because Broneer revised it to a personal name. He reports de Waele's Peribolos proposal, Wiseman's note of a macellum north of Temple Hill and Ward-Perkins's description of the North Market, says the macellum has not been identified with certainty, and infers its probable form from macella at Pompeii and Lepcis Magna." }, { "author": "Gordon D. Fee", "work": "The First Epistle to the Corinthians", "year": "1987", "view": "As quoted by Gill (1992), Fee treated a Latin macellum inscription from Corinth as undoubtedly naming the very market Paul refers to, without citing the inscription." }, { "author": "Vasilis Evangelidis", "work": "Macella and Makelloi in Roman Greece: The Archaeological and Textual Evidence (Hesperia 88.2)", "year": "2019", "view": "Evangelidis surveys the evidence, mostly inscriptions and texts, for food-market buildings in Roman Greece from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD, treating makellos as the likely Hellenized form of Latin macellum, and asks what they reveal about Italo-Roman influence. EDCS cites this article for both Corinth texts. Only the abstract was checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177612", "label": "Corinth macellum dedication, copy 1 (Corinth VIII.2 124 + VIII.3 321)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177613", "label": "Corinth macellum dedication, copy 2 (Corinth VIII.2 125)" } ], "title": "羅馬時期哥林多的macellum（肉市）銘文", "summary": "羅馬時期的哥林多有一座正式稱為macellum的公共市場建築；這個拉丁詞通常被聯繫到保羅在《哥林多前書》10:25提到的市場。一塊殘片保存了MACELLV[M]；另一篇極為相似的獻辭則按此復原。這些銘文的年代在奧古斯都至提庇留時期，記載Q. Cornelius Secundus及其家人為捐贈者，似乎還附帶一處魚類設施（piscarium）。它們沒有顯示這座建築位於何處、在五十年代是否仍在使用，或出售什麼肉類。", "dating": "奧古斯都至提庇留時期。EDCS定為公元前27年至公元14年；Kent根據字體把副本一定於奧古斯都在位期間；據Cadbury報告，West定為奧古斯都在位末年或提庇留在位期間；發掘紀錄則定為公元一世紀上半葉。公元前27年至公元50年這個範圍涵蓋了上述各種估計。", "currentLocation": "古哥林多，哥林多發掘團（按館藏編號引用的殘片I 70和I 27都屬於副本一；存放或展示情況未經核實）。", "establishes": [ "兩篇極為相似的白色大理石拉丁文獻辭以殘片形式存世，通常被視為副本。副本一（Corinth VIII.2 124，Kent擴充為VIII.3 321）由編者用幾塊殘片拼合而成；副本二是VIII.2 125。字母MACELLV[只見於副本一；副本二中的macellum一詞完全是復原的。", "捐贈者是屬Aemilia部族的Q. Cornelius Secundus、他的妻子Maecia和他們的子女。一位被釋奴Q. Maecius Cleogenes以屬格出現在一個部分復原的短語中，很可能是作為女兒Cornelia Secunda的丈夫，而不是作為捐贈者。", "現存的字母PI[（副本一）和]SCARIO（副本二）被復原為piscarium，即與macellum一同捐贈的魚類設施。它位於macellum之內還是旁邊，仍有爭論。無論如何，這項捐贈都符合Cadbury的論點：macella出售魚類和其他食品，而不只是肉類。", "Kent根據字體把副本一定於奧古斯都在位期間，West則把兩篇文本都定於奧古斯都在位末年或提庇留治下。由此可見，一座稱為macellum的建築，在保羅居留哥林多（《使徒行傳》18章）之前已捐贈給這個殖民地，可能早了幾十年。", "這個拉丁詞在這個羅馬殖民地中是正式的公共用語。保羅在《哥林多前書》10:25所用的詞是makellon；在羅馬時期，這個詞被視為拉丁文的macellum（其最終來源仍有爭議），而且正如Cadbury所觀察，它是保羅書信中極少數的拉丁借詞之一。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "macellum位於何處。Kent補入的殘片出自南巴西利卡，而Gill說這座建築尚未被確切辨認出來。他報告了Ward-Perkins把哥林多北市場描述為龐貝式市場，以及Wiseman提到神廟山以北有一座macellum，但沒有任何證據把這些銘文與兩者中的任何一處，或與任何確定在保羅時代仍在使用的建築聯繫起來。", "保羅寫信時這座建築是否仍在使用，或那裡出售的肉類有多少來自神廟的祭牲。現存文本記下的是捐贈者和建築，而不是它的買賣或貨源。", "《使徒行傳》18章的任何事件，或哥林多信徒關於祭偶像之物的爭論中的任何細節。另外，據Gill報告，南柱廊的一則希臘文塗鴉曾被讀作提到一位屠夫，後來其發掘者Broneer把它重新讀作人名，所以它不能作為這個市場的證據。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍未解決。第一，piscarium是同一座macellum的一部分（Nabers，Gill從之），還是一座獨立的建築？據Cadbury報告，De Waele提出在勒凱翁路附近有兩座市場建築；Cadbury認為可能有一座獨立但相連的魚市；而Cadbury和Gill對West本人讀法的描述並不相同。第二，這座建築位於何處？De Waele把它定於勒凱翁路旁阿波羅圍院的位置（據Cadbury和Gill報告）；Gill也提到Ward-Perkins把北市場描述為龐貝式市場。這些地點都沒有與銘文聯繫起來。第三，市場上的肉在多大程度上來自祭牲？Cadbury懷疑macella本質上與神廟崇拜關係密切。保羅在《哥林多前書》10:25–28的指示，假定買肉的人可能不知道肉是否曾獻過祭。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "兩座獨立的市場建築", "statement": "據Cadbury報告，De Waele在1934年的一封信中提出：macellum位於後來阿波羅圍院所在之處，另有一座獨立的piscarium位於羅馬巴西利卡以北。Cadbury認為可能有一座獨立但相連的魚市。Gill說West（Kent從之）讀出的是一座獨立的Macellum Piscarium；Cadbury則說，早期的讀法推斷只有單獨一座。" }, { "label": "附設魚類設施的單一macellum", "statement": "據Gill報告，Nabers（1969）認為Cornelii家族不大可能捐贈兩座功能相同的建築。其他macellum銘文用「macellum cum ...」來列出同一建築群的各項設施，所以哥林多的macellum很可能包括供應魚類的設施。Gill（1992）採用這個讀法。" }, { "label": "正是保羅所指的市場", "statement": "據Gill引述，Fee（1987）認為哥林多的一篇macellum銘文所提到的，正是《哥林多前書》10:25的那個市場。如果這座建築在五十年代仍是殖民地的食品市場，這種看法是合理的；但這些銘文既沒有顯示它保存了下來，也沒有顯示它位於何處，更沒有顯示那裡是唯一出售肉類的地方。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-corinth-macellum" }, { "id": "corinth-bema", "kind": "site", "dateFrom": -44, "dateTo": 54, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.3 322", "Corinth VIII.2 47", "Corinth VIII.2 52", "Corinth VIII.3 157", "Corinth VIII.3 306", "Corinth VIII.3 728", "AE 1939, 110", "AE 1947, 198", "EDCS-08200272", "EDCS-15300190" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "reconstructed", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 25:6", "Acts 25:17", "John 19:13" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.gallio", "person.sosthenes" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby", "work": "EDCS record of the rostra revetment inscription, Corinth (cites West no. 47; = Kent no. 322)", "locator": "EDCS-08200272", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/082/08200272.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby", "work": "EDCS record of a governor's letter to Corinth with the note that it was read from the rostra (AE 1939, 110; = Kent no. 306)", "locator": "EDCS-15300190", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/153/15300190.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Corinthus/Korinthos", "locator": "570182", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/570182/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Oscar Broneer", "work": "Studies in the Topography of Corinth at the Time of St. Paul (Archaiologike Ephemeris)", "year": "1937", "view": "Cited by Scranton (1957) for the view that the church on the Bema commemorated Paul's trial there (bibliography only, not inspected)." }, { "author": "Robert L. Scranton", "work": "Corinth I.3: Monuments in the Lower Agora and North of the Archaic Temple", "year": "1951", "view": "Standard architectural publication of the Bema; Kent relies on it for the revetment fit and an original poros facade (bibliography only, not inspected)." }, { "author": "Allen Brown West", "work": "Corinth VIII.2: Latin Inscriptions, 1896-1926", "year": "1931", "view": "First published two of the fragments that Kent later joined into no. 322, as West nos. 47 and 52, before the fragment preserving ROST was found in 1937-1938 (known here through Kent's concordance and EDCS)." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Restored scattered marble fragments as a building text naming the rostra and, matching the slab's thickness and finish to the platform's orthostates, concluded that the central structure was the Bema, officially called the Rostra, with marble revetments of the first half of the 1st century AD, probably the second quarter. He held that it first had a poros facade, and thought a 9th/10th-century text naming a church of Paul probably belonged to the church on the Bema." }, { "author": "Robert L. Scranton", "work": "Corinth XVI: Mediaeval Architecture in the Central Area of Corinth", "year": "1957", "view": "Found a church or burial chapel near the Bema from the 9th or early 10th century, and a church on the Bema certainly by the 12th. He judged that the common explanation, that the church commemorated Paul's trial, requires a continuity from antiquity that is difficult to establish." }, { "author": "Andrew Gallia (Corinth Computer Project, dir. David Gilman Romano)", "work": "Central Shops, Bema, and Temple of Hermes (Corinth Computer Project, Roman Forum ca. A.D. 150)", "year": "2007", "view": "Holds that the Rostra was likely built soon after the colony's foundation in 44 BC, its concrete core faced with poros blocks, and that its white marble decoration and flanking benched alcoves came later, tentatively in the early to mid-1st century AD. It served events such as public oratory and important legal tribunals." }, { "author": "Paul D. Scotton, Catherine de Grazia Vanderpool and Carolynn Roncaglia", "work": "Corinth XXII: The Julian Basilica: Architecture, Sculpture, Epigraphy", "year": "2022", "view": "According to the publisher's description, the Julian Basilica at the east end of the forum held one of the largest known shrines to the imperial cult and was the likely site of the imperial court of law for the province of Achaia. That makes it a possible alternative venue for formal proconsular hearings." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos (the ancient city; no separate Pleiades entry for the bema)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1363688", "label": "Ancient Corinth (the city; no Wikidata item found for the bema itself)" } ], "title": "哥林多羅馬廣場上的bema（rostra）", "summary": "有可能，但無法證明。哥林多羅馬廣場上的大平臺，是迦流拒絕審判保羅的那個審判臺（bēma）的合理候選（《使徒行傳》18:12–17）。Kent把零散的大理石殘片復原為一篇稱它為殖民地rostra的銘文，而在保羅的時代，那裡很可能已有某種平臺。沒有任何古代來源指明這個地點；這種認定是現代人根據發掘作出的推論，而尤利烏斯巴西利卡內的審判臺是另一個值得認真考慮的可能。", "dating": "平臺很可能在公元前44年殖民地建立後不久建成，最初採用poros立面（Corinth Computer Project；Kent）。東側設有石凳的壁龕所出的一塊刻字橫楣，暫定為奧古斯都時期（Kent 157）。Kent根據字體把大理石貼面（Kent 322）定於公元一世紀上半葉，很可能是第二個四分之一世紀，但他的建築年表把它列在克勞第時期。從九世紀或十世紀初起，附近已有一座教堂或墓葬小聖堂；到十二世紀，平臺上肯定已建有教堂（Scranton）。", "currentLocation": "平臺仍在原址，位於希臘古哥林多考古遺址的羅馬廣場。Kent 322的貼面殘片（Kent館藏編號285、410、682、727、1929、2119）屬於哥林多發掘團的藏品；其存放或展示情況未經核實。", "establishes": [ "Kent把1901至1938年間在廣場四周發現的白色大理石貼面殘片，拼合成一篇建築銘文，並把其中現存的字母ROST復原為rost[ra]（Corinth VIII.3 322；EDCS-08200272）。他把石板的厚度和表面處理與平臺的貼面相比對，從而得出結論：中央平臺的正式名稱是Rostra，即希臘文bēma（審判臺）的拉丁文對應詞。", "東側schola所出的一塊刻字橫楣，暫定為奧古斯都時期（Kent 157）。Kent把大理石貼面定於一世紀上半葉，很可能是第二個四分之一世紀，但他的建築年表把它列在克勞第時期。因此，五十年代初迦流治理亞該亞時，廣場上很可能已有一座平臺，至少是較早期以poros為立面的形式。", "約公元170年，哥林多有一座rostra，官方書信在那裡宣讀（Kent 306；AE 1939, 110）。這篇文本沒有說明那是哪一座建築，而且只能顯示二世紀的做法。", "《使徒行傳》18:12、16和17把迦流的審訊放在一個bēma前。發掘顯示，哥林多的城市中心有一座這類顯眼的公共平臺，所以路加所寫的場景符合該城的布局。不過，任何行省首府都會有這樣的審判臺，所以這種吻合是可以預料的，而不是獨特的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "保羅曾站在這座平臺前。沒有任何古代文本或銘文把它與迦流或保羅聯繫起來；這種認定是現代人根據平臺的位置和功能作出的推論。", "審訊的日期或細節。迦流的任期是由另一份證據，即德爾斐的克勞第書信來確定的，而《使徒行傳》是這次審訊唯一的記載。", "基督徒對保羅曾在此處一直延續的記憶。從九世紀或十世紀初起，平臺附近已有一座教堂或墓葬小聖堂，到十二世紀，平臺上肯定已建有教堂；Scranton判斷，所需的那種從古代延續下來的連續性難以確立。一篇九或十世紀、提到[聖]保羅教堂的銘文（Kent 728），顯示當時已有獻給保羅的教堂，而不是一世紀的記憶。" ], "debate": "Kent認為把它認定為總督的rostra是確定無疑的，後來的目錄（EDCS）也沿用他的復原；但關鍵詞只存ROST幾個字母，而且Kent也承認，他的復原未必每個細節都正確。有三個問題仍未解決。第一，迦流的審訊是在這座平臺舉行，還是在別處的審判臺？根據出版者對Corinth XXII（2022）的介紹，尤利烏斯巴西利卡很可能是該行省帝國法庭的所在地。第二，今天可見的大理石階段，有多少早於迦流的任期？第三，平臺上的中世紀教堂是保存了古代的記憶，還是反映了後來的認定？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "在巴西利卡內開庭", "statement": "正式的省長審訊，可能是在巴西利卡內舉行，而不是在露天的rostra上。出版者對Corinth XXII（2022）的介紹，稱廣場東端的尤利烏斯巴西利卡很可能是亞該亞帝國法庭的所在地。迦流的審判臺可能就設在那裡。該介紹並沒有討論保羅。" }, { "label": "Bēma指審判臺，而非某座建築", "statement": "《使徒行傳》也用同一個詞指非斯都在凱撒利亞的審判臺（《使徒行傳》25:6；《使徒行傳》25:17），《約翰福音》則用它指彼拉多在一個名叫「鋪華石處」的地方所設的審判臺（《約翰福音》19:13）。總督的審判臺出現在不同的場景中，所以《使徒行傳》18章不一定是指那座固定的rostra；廣場上的平臺只是幾個合理候選之一。" }, { "label": "中世紀的認定，而非記憶", "statement": "平臺上的拜占庭教堂，可能反映的是基督徒後來對這個地點的認定，而不是從一世紀流傳下來的記憶。Scranton判斷，所需的連續性難以確立，而附近最早有據可查的、獻給保羅的教堂（Kent 728），年代為九或十世紀。" }, { "label": "保羅時代較早期或尚未完成的建築", "statement": "Kent的建築年表把大理石貼面列在克勞第時期（公元41至54年），但他的正文傾向於該世紀的第二個四分之一。因此，大理石的rostra可能在迦流任期前不久或之後才完成，而保羅看到的，可能是較早期以poros（本地石灰岩）為立面的平臺。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/corinth-bema" }, { "id": "malta-protos", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 1, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [ "IG XIV 601", "IGRR I 512", "CIG 5754", "PHI 140928", "I.Sicily ISic003683", "TM 285166", "EDR112577", "EDCS-39101548", "CIL X 7495", "ILS 5415", "EDCS-22100614", "EDR112567", "TM 285139" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 28:7", "Acts 28:1-10", "Acts 13:50", "Acts 28:17" ], "personIds": [ "person.publius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.malta" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "kaibel-ig-xiv", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae XIV: Inscriptiones Siciliae et Italiae", "author": "Georg Kaibel (ed.)", "year": "1890", "locator": "IG XIV 601, p. 142 (lemma, text and commentary)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C/page/n190", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: IG XIV 601", "locator": "EDCS-39101548 (IG 14, 00601)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/391/39101548.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: IG XIV 601", "locator": "TM 285166", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/285166", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL X 7495", "locator": "EDCS-22100614 (CIL 10, 07495 (p 994) = D 05415)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/221/22100614.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: CIL X 7495", "locator": "TM 285139", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/285139", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "author": "James Smith", "year": "1848", "locator": "pp. 112-114 (Malta; the title of Publius)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog/page/n168", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "may mean either that Publius was the principal person in the island, as our translators have understood it, or it may be an official title.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XIV, sec. 9 'Malta', p. 343", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/page/n362", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title \"first\" is technically correct in Melita: it has inscriptional authority.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "First Person Narrative in Acts 27-28 (Tyndale Bulletin 36)", "year": "1985", "view": "Treats IG XIV 601 (= IGRR I 512), dated AD 14-37, as attesting the title of Malta's chief local magistrate. He judges the Latin CIL X 7495 indecisive, because its first line is usually quoted out of a mutilated context, and, citing Greek parallels, thinks primus there more likely means first to perform the benefactions listed. He notes that several commentators cite the Latin text as confirming Luke without addressing its restoration." }, { "author": "Loredana Cappelletti", "work": "Documenti epigrafici sulle istituzioni di Melita (Malta) in età romana (Gerión 42, special issue)", "year": "2024", "view": "Treats the Greek inscription's title, the title in Acts 28:7 and CIL X 7495 as one settled, official local title rooted in Melita's social and economic hierarchy, with likely municipal effects; agrees with Suhl's honorific parallels; and leaves its actual powers open. She records that modern opinion is divided between a supreme local magistracy and an honorific title, notes that IG XIV 601 is now lost, and dates Melita's municipium probably to Augustus, against Ashby's later date." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "462311", "label": "Melita/Malta (island)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "462310", "label": "Melita (town at Mdina/Rabat; findspot of both texts)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "285166", "label": "IG XIV 601 (TM text record)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "285139", "label": "CIL X 7495 (TM text record)" } ], "title": "馬耳他島的「馬耳他人的第一人」：希臘文和拉丁文銘文中的protos頭銜", "summary": "馬耳他曾使用一個與《使徒行傳》28:7給予部百流的稱號相似的頭銜：一篇已經佚失、只靠近代早期抄本得知的希臘文銘文（IG XIV 601），稱羅馬騎士L. Castricius Prudens為「馬耳他人的第一人」。一座二世紀的拉丁文基座（CIL X 7495）上有殘缺、部分經過復原的primus omni[um]，其含義有爭議。兩篇文本都沒有提到部百流，而學者對這個頭銜表示的是職位還是榮銜，意見不一。", "dating": "IG XIV 601：公元一世紀（EDR和EDCS定為公元1至100年；據Kaibel所記，Mommsen定為提庇留時期，Hemer亦然，即公元14至37年）。CIL X 7495：公元二世紀（EDR定為公元100至200年；EDCS定為公元101至200年）。", "currentLocation": "IG XIV 601：已佚（EDR112577；Cappelletti 2024）。CIL X 7495：馬耳他拉巴特，羅馬古物博物館（據EDR112567）。", "establishes": [ "IG XIV 601現已佚失，只靠近代早期抄本得知。它稱一位屬Quirina部族的羅馬騎士L. Castricius Prudens（族名部分為復原）為「馬耳他人的第一人」和庇護人，並說他曾任執政官（archon）和神聖奧古斯都的amphipolos（祭司）。", "在帝國早期，至少有一位顯要的馬耳他人擁有這個頭銜，因此《使徒行傳》28:7用於部百流的稱號符合當地用法。", "CIL X 7495是一塊出自姆迪納、殘缺的二世紀拉丁文大理石石塊，很可能是雕像基座，用以尊崇一位未具名的神廟工程捐助者；這些工程包括石柱、基壇和鋪面。它殘缺的第一行讀作[muni]cipi(i) Mel(itensium) primus omni[um]；這一行的開頭已經佚失，而現存詞語的含義仍有爭議。", "這篇希臘文文本顯示，一世紀初已有執政官（archons）、一位庇護人和奧古斯都的祭司職位。在這兩篇文本中，只有二世紀的拉丁文基座證實有市議員（decurions）和自治市地位。米利大（Melita）何時成為municipium，仍有爭議。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "兩篇銘文都沒有提到部百流。兩者都沒有證實船難、保羅的停留、部百流父親得醫治，或《使徒行傳》28:1–10中的任何其他事件。", "這個頭銜在公元60年前後帶有什麼權力（如果有的話）。這些文本的年代從公元一世紀初到二世紀，而那篇希臘文文本把「第一」與持有人過去的執政官職位並列，而不是用它取代該職位。", "CIL X 7495中的primus omni[um]是一個頭銜，而不是一個關於所列捐助、意為「眾人中第一個……」的子句的開頭。", "船隻在馬耳他的哪處靠岸。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍未解決。第一，「第一」在馬耳他是什麼意思？Smith和Ramsay把它理解為正式頭銜；Kaibel認為它是一種明確的城市榮銜，並把它與部百流聯繫起來；Hemer則把它讀作當地最高長官的頭銜。其他學者，尤其是Suhl，則視之為榮譽稱號。Cappelletti接受Suhl所舉的榮譽稱號類比，卻稱它是社會和經濟等級體系中一個固定的、正式的地方頭銜，而沒有斷定其權力。在IG XIV 601中，它與「曾任執政官」並列，而不是取而代之。第二，CIL X 7495中殘缺的拉丁文短語是否與之對應？Hemer引用希臘文的類比，認為這篇拉丁文文本不足以下定論，並認為primus較可能是指第一個完成所列捐助的人。米利大何時成為municipium，也有爭議：據Kaibel所記，Mommsen根據Castricius的銘文推斷，在提庇留治下，米利大人沒有羅馬公民地位；Cappelletti則認為這個municipium很可能始於奧古斯都時期，不同意Ashby所定的較晚年代。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "榮譽地位，而非職位", "statement": "這個頭銜可能是在榮譽上標示島上首要顯要人物的地位，而不是指一個明確界定的官職。帝國東部的希臘文銘文中，也有類似的「行省第一人」和「城市第一人」頭銜，Suhl曾加以搜集，Cappelletti也有所綜述。按這種看法，部百流是馬耳他最顯要的人物，但這個頭銜並不能告訴我們他有什麼正式權力。" }, { "label": "《使徒行傳》中的描述性用語", "statement": "路加可能只是以非術語的意義，把部百流描述為島上的首要人物。路加也用這個詞的複數形式，指彼西底的安提阿的顯要人物，以及羅馬的猶太人領袖（《使徒行傳》13:50；《使徒行傳》28:17）。Smith（1848）先闡述了這種讀法（較早的英文譯者也採用這種讀法），然後才主張它是一個正式頭銜。" }, { "label": "CIL X 7495中的「第一個做某事的人」", "statement": "在這座拉丁文基座上，primus omni[um]可能是一個意為「眾人中第一個……」的子句的開頭。Hemer（1985）引用希臘文的類比，判斷這篇文本不足以下定論。確實有使用這個套語的拉丁文榮譽銘文，例如CIL XI 6054和CIL IX 2237；這些類比來自本條目在EDCS的檢索，而不是來自Hemer。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-malta-protos" }, { "id": "philippi-colony-magistrates", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -42, "dateTo": 161, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 1649", "RPC I 1650", "RPC I 1653", "EDCS-15900071", "AE 1938, 52", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 253", "CIPh II.1, 136", "EDCS-43000131", "AE 2006, 1330", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 324a", "CIPh II.1, 121", "EDCS-24200017", "CIL III 14206,19", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 452", "CIPh II.1, 15", "EDCS-20200004", "CIL II 5439", "ILS 6087", "CIL II²/5, 1022" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 16:10-17", "Acts 16:12", "Acts 16:19-24", "Acts 16:35-39", "Acts 22:25-29", "Acts 25:10-12", "1 Thessalonians 2:2", "2 Corinthians 11:25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.claudius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.philippi", "place.macedonia", "place.amphipolis" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Funerary text for [Varin]ius Macedo, aedile, quaestor, IIvir iure dicundo at Philippi, munerarius (dated 1st century AD)", "locator": "EDCS-15900071 = AE 1938, 52 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 253 = CIPh II.1, 136", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/15900071", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Inscription for M. Figilius Pudens, holder of honorary decurional rank (ornamenta decurionalia), aedile, IIvir iure dicundo at Philippi, flamen of Antoninus (AD 138-161)", "locator": "EDCS-43000131 = AE 2006, 1330 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 324a = CIPh II.1, 121", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/43000131", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Dedication by col(onia) Philipp(iensium) to the children and grandchildren of Augustus (EDCS date 1st century AD)", "locator": "EDCS-24200017 = CIL III 14206,19 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 452 = CIPh II.1, 15", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/24200017", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Lex Coloniae Genetivae Iuliae (Urso charter), ch. 62: each duovir to have two lictors, an accensus, two scribes and two viatores", "locator": "EDCS-20200004 = CIL II 5439 = ILS 6087 = CIL II²/5, 1022, ch. LXII", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/20200004", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1917", "work": "Roman History, Book 51", "locator": "51.4.6", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "To most of those who were dispossessed he made compensation by permitting them to settle in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "work": "Life of Claudius", "locator": "Claud. 25.3", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Those who usurped the privileges of Roman citizenship he executed in the Esquiline field.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. X, §3 'Accusation and Condemnation in Philippi'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title Prætors was not technically accurate, but was frequently employed as a courtesy title for the supreme magistrates of a Roman colony; and, as usual, Luke moves on the plane of educated conversation in such matters, and not on the plane of rigid technical accuracy.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. V, §4 'The Church at Pisidian Antioch'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now, since the Roman governors whom he met were favourable to him, these beatings must have taken place in \"colonies,\" whose magistrates were attended by lictors.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. IX, §4 'The Entrance into Macedonia'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of old Amphipolis had been the chief city of the division, to which both belonged. Afterwards Philippi quite outstripped its rival; but it was at that time in such a position, that Amphipolis was ranked first by general consent, Philippi first by its own consent.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "year": "1790", "work": "Horae Paulinae (SPCK edition, 1855)", "locator": "ch. IV (Second Epistle to the Corinthians), No. IX", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horpaulinortrut00palegoog/horpaulinortrut00palegoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "These particulars cannot be extracted out of the Acts of the Apostles; which proves, as hath been already observed, that the epistle was not framed from the history; yet they are consistent with it", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Cédric Brélaz", "work": "Philippes, colonie romaine d'Orient: Recherches d'histoire institutionnelle et sociale (BCH Supplément 59)", "year": "2018", "view": "Antony founded the colony, and its duoviri iure dicundo were its highest financial and judicial authority. Brélaz notes that the Greek title Acts uses commonly rendered duumvir, as in Greek inscriptions of the colony of Corinth, and that Acts applies it specifically to Philippi's duoviri, who send their lictors to the prison. He uses the episode to illustrate summary municipal justice while leaving its truth open." }, { "author": "Cédric Brélaz", "work": "Corpus des inscriptions grecques et latines de Philippes, II.1: La colonie romaine, La vie publique de la colonie", "year": "2014", "view": "Standard corpus of the colony's public inscriptions, including a section on municipal magistrates and local administration. It is the CIPh II.1 numbering used in the EDCS records cited here." }, { "author": "Peter Pilhofer", "work": "Philippi, Band 2: Katalog der Inschriften von Philippi (2nd edition)", "year": "2009", "view": "Catalogue of the inscriptions of Philippi and its territory. It is the source of the 'Philippi' catalogue numbers in EDCS concordances (e.g. no. 253, 324a, 452)." }, { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992", "view": "Catalogues Philippi's colonial coinage, including RPC I 1649 (legend A I C V P, expanded as Antoni iussu colonia victrix Philippensis, with Q. Paquius Rufus named as legate for founding the colony), RPC I 1650 (Augustus) and RPC I 1653 (Claudius, reverse COL AVG IVL PHILIP)." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "A Roman historian's Sarum Lectures, including 'The Roman citizenship and Acts'. He discusses the Roman rules, notably the Julian law on public violence, that protected citizens from being bound or beaten, and argues that Acts' picture of Roman legal and civic procedure fits first-century conditions as far as it can be tested." }, { "author": "John Clayton Lentz Jr.", "work": "Luke's Portrait of Paul (SNTSMS 77)", "year": "1993", "view": "Sceptical. He judges it improbable that a strict Pharisee held Roman and Tarsian citizenship, and he reads Acts' citizenship motif as part of a deliberate literary portrayal of Paul's high status and virtue." }, { "author": "Ekkehard Weber", "work": "Das römische Bürgerrecht des Apostels Paulus (Tyche 27)", "year": "2012", "view": "Argues that the appeal to the emperor (Acts 25:11) implies that Paul held Roman citizenship. He leaves open how the family acquired it, either through a grant to Tarsus or through a manumitted ancestor." }, { "author": "H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones", "work": "A Greek-English Lexicon (9th edition)", "year": "1940", "view": "Its entry for the Greek title Acts gives Philippi's magistrates includes the sense Roman praetor and applies the word to the duoviri, or chief magistrates, of Roman colonies. Its example for colonies is Acts 16:20 itself, so for that usage it is not independent of Acts." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "501482", "label": "Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q379652", "label": "Philippi (ancient city in eastern Macedonia)" } ], "title": "作為羅馬殖民地的腓立比：它的錢幣、duoviri與殖民地執法吏", "summary": "錢幣、拉丁文銘文和卡西烏斯．狄奧都顯示，腓立比正如《使徒行傳》16:12所說，是羅馬殖民地，由兩名首席官長（duoviri）治理。另一個殖民地——西班牙的烏爾索——的特許狀，為這類官長配備執法吏。這與《使徒行傳》的記述相符：官長下令用棍責打，後來又差派持棍的差役（《使徒行傳》16:22、35-38）。這一切都不能證實這段經過本身，而保羅的公民身分只見於《使徒行傳》。", "dating": "殖民地錢幣：從安東尼於公元前42年之後建立殖民地起，到克勞第時期（公元41至54年）為止；提及殖民地官長的拉丁文銘文：公元一至二世紀（所引最晚的一件定於公元138至161年）；比較證據：烏爾索特許狀（EDCS定於公元前44年）", "currentLocation": "希臘馬其頓東部的腓立比（克雷尼德斯），即腓立比銘文的出土地；烏爾索特許狀出自西班牙南部的奧蘇納；錢幣標本分藏於多處公私收藏（RPC）；狄奧的文本藉抄本傳統流傳至今", "establishes": [ "在保羅的時代，腓立比是羅馬殖民地。當地錢幣在安東尼時期（幣文引述他的命令；RPC I 1649）、奧古斯都時期（RPC I 1650，COL AVG IVL PHIL IVSSV AVG）和克勞第時期（RPC I 1653）都稱它為殖民地。卡西烏斯．狄奧（51.4.6）記載，屋大維把被奪去土地的意大利人安置在那裡。《使徒行傳》16:12是新約中唯一稱某座城為羅馬殖民地的經文。", "腓立比出土的拉丁文銘文，稱殖民地的首席官長為IIvir iure dicundo，這個職位屬於一條包括營造官（aedile）和財務官（quaestor）在內的羅馬式仕途。EDCS把其中一件定於公元一世紀（EDCS-15900071），另一件涉及曾獲榮譽市議員級別（ornamenta decurionalia）的M. Figilius Pudens，定於公元138至161年（EDCS-43000131）。殖民地本身也以獻詞者的身分出現（EDCS-24200017）。", "殖民地的官長配有執法吏。烏爾索殖民地的特許狀（第62章）給每位duovir配備兩名執法吏，另有一名隨員（accensus）、兩名書記和兩名信差（EDCS-20200004）。Ramsay推論，保羅受棍打都發生在殖民地，而殖民地的官長有執法吏隨侍。《使徒行傳》符合這個情形：頭銜意為「持棍者」的差役，也就是執法吏，替官長傳話（《使徒行傳》16:35、38）。", "蘇埃托尼烏斯記載，克勞第把冒用公民身分的人處死（《克勞第傳》25.3）；按通常的年代推算，保羅的到訪（約公元49至50年）正在他在位期間。Sherwin-White（1963年）討論過保障公民不被官長捆綁或責打的羅馬法規，特別是關於公共暴力的尤利烏斯法。因此，從羅馬法律的角度看，《使徒行傳》16:38中官長的驚慌是可以理解的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "沒有任何銘文或錢幣提到《使徒行傳》16章中的官長、獄警、呂底亞或其他任何人，也沒有記載保羅和西拉被捕、受棍打、下監或獲釋。制度背景準確，本身並不表示這段經過確如所敘述的那樣發生。", "這不能證明保羅是羅馬公民。這項說法只見於《使徒行傳》（《使徒行傳》16:37及22:25-29）。保羅的書信證實他在腓立比受過凌辱（《帖撒羅尼迦前書》2:2），也三次被棍打（《哥林多後書》11:25），卻從未提到公民身分。也有人問，一位公民為何會三次被棍打（《哥林多後書》11:25）；書信沒有解釋這一點。", "腓立比本身的特許狀沒有留存，因此關於執法吏的證據，是借另一個殖民地（烏爾索）類推而來。這裡所引的拉丁文銘文用的是IIvir；腓立比說希臘話的人，是否正式或非正式地以《使徒行傳》所用的希臘文頭銜稱呼這些人，尚無定論。" ], "debate": "仍有一些問題懸而未決。腓立比的拉丁文銘文寫作IIvir（duovir）。Ramsay把《使徒行傳》給這些人的頭銜（他譯作「praetors」，即法務官）視為一種敬稱；Brélaz則指出，同一個希臘文頭銜通常用來對譯duumvir，哥林多殖民地的希臘文銘文即是一例。關於公民身分，Lentz懷疑一位嚴格的法利賽人會擁有這種身分，並把它讀作路加所描繪的保羅形象的一部分；Weber則認為，向凱撒上訴一事意味著他擁有這種身分。批評者也問，保羅為何到挨打之後才援引這種身分。最後，《使徒行傳》16:12把腓立比列為所屬地區的首要城市，這與暗妃波里作為該分區首府的較早地位不太協調。Ramsay把這個說法讀作城市的自豪：腓立比自稱擁有這個地位，而公認擁有這地位的卻是暗妃波里。另一些人則採用某些現代校勘本所印的異文或推測讀法，使腓立比成為「第一區的一座城市」，或把這個排名讀作一種榮譽標記，而非行政級別。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "背景準確，場景出於編撰", "statement": "路加或他的資料來源了解東方殖民地的運作方式。正確的頭銜和程序顯示作者熟悉這個背景，但也與經過戲劇化或編撰的情節相容。按這種看法，遲遲才揭示公民身分，屬於《使徒行傳》對保羅崇高地位的文學描繪（Lentz即持此說），而不是一件可以查證的事件。" }, { "label": "敬稱，而非術語錯誤", "statement": "正如銘文所示，這些官長在法律上是duoviri。《使徒行傳》給他們的希臘文頭銜，反映了對殖民地官長的禮貌稱呼或通俗用法。Ramsay認為，這個稱呼在受過教育者交談的層面上是準確的，而非術語上的精確。Brélaz把它視為duumvir的常規希臘文對應詞；LSJ也把這個詞用於殖民地的duoviri，不過它所舉的例子正是《使徒行傳》本身。" }, { "label": "消息靈通的敘述者，並有部分獨立佐證", "statement": "第一人稱複數的敘述延伸到腓立比（《使徒行傳》16:10-17），但在逮捕之前就停止了。保羅自己的書信獨立地提到他在腓立比受到惡待（《帖撒羅尼迦前書》2:2），以及被棍打（《哥林多後書》11:25）。佩利主張，這封信並非取材於《使徒行傳》，卻與它吻合；Ramsay則認為敘述者掌握當地的消息。不過，書信仍沒有證實公民身分的說法或審訊的細節。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-philippi-colony-magistrates" }, { "id": "festus-coins", "kind": "coin", "dateFrom": 58, "dateTo": 59, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 4972", "Meshorer 35 (as cited by RPC I 4972)" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 24:10", "Acts 24:27", "Acts 25:1-12", "Acts 27:9" ], "personIds": [ "person.festus", "person.felix", "person.nero", "person.claudius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.judea", "place.jerusalem", "place.caesarea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D8%3Awhiston+section%3D9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.137-138 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D7%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "SO Claudius sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to take care of the affairs of Judea; and when he had already completed the twelfth year of his reign, he bestowed upon Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip and Batanea", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.197 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "AND now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.200 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.271 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston+chapter%3D14%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "NOW it was that Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 6.300 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D5%3Awhiston+section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "four years before the war began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and prosperity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one to make tabernacles to God in the temple", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 6.305 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D5%3Awhiston+section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Albinus (for he was then our procurator)", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 reprint", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 13.14 (narrative of AD 55)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D13%3Achapter%3D14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And so Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius, and in which he acted, so to say, as the controller of the throne.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 reprint", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 13.23 (narrative of AD 55)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D13%3Achapter%3D23", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the proved innocence of Pallas did not please men so much, as his arrogance offended them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "locator": "Claud. 45", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He died on the third day before the Ides of October in the consulship of Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola, in the sixty-fourth year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.22.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was sent by Nero to be Felix's successor. Under him Paul, having made his defense, was sent bound to Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "work": "Notes to Eusebius, Church History (NPNF, Second Series, vol. 1)", "locator": "HE 2.22.1, note 469", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The exact year of the accession of Festus is not known, but it is known that his death occurred before the summer of 62 a.d.; for at that time his successor, Albinus, was already procurator, as we can see from Josephus, B. J. VI. 5. 3.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. XIV, §3 'The Council'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The great Fast fell in 59 on Oct. 5, and, as Paul and Aristarchus observed the Fast, Luke uses it as an indication of date.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "Chronological Index to the Life of St. Paul", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Imprisonment in Palestine June 57 to July 59", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992 (online edition 2019)", "view": "Catalogues the type as RPC I 4972, struck at Jerusalem under Nero in year 5 and dated AD 59, without naming the governor who issued it. Its Claudius year-14 issues (RPC I 4970-4971, AD 54) name Julia Agrippina, and Britannicus and Nero, but no governor." }, { "author": "Frederic W. Madden", "work": "Coins of the Jews (International Numismata Orientalia II)", "year": "1881", "view": "Lists the year-5 type (AD 58-59) under Felix and dates Festus to AD 60 to the end of 61, while reporting that de Saulcy had assigned the coin to Festus." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I (English translation by John Macpherson)", "year": "1890", "view": "Holds that Felix was probably recalled in AD 60, the date most investigators then preferred. Reports that Kellner (November 54) and V. Weber (summer 55) argued for an early recall from Eusebius's Chronicle and Pallas's influence, and rebuts them: the Chronicle's dates are often arbitrary, Josephus puts almost all of Felix's acts under Nero, and Pallas was acquitted before the end of 55." }, { "author": "Michael J. G. Gray-Fow", "work": "Why Festus, Not Felix? Paul's Caesarem Appello (Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 59/3)", "year": "2016", "view": "Places Festus's arrival and Paul's appeal in the summer of AD 60, and calls that date approximate but traditional." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma (mint named by RPC)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea (governor's seat)" } ], "title": "歸於非斯都名下的尼祿第五年猶太錢幣", "summary": "尼祿第五年（公元58/59年）為猶太鑄造的小銅幣，幣文只有尼祿和凱撒兩個名號以及年份，常被歸於波求．非斯都——即《使徒行傳》24:27中接替腓力斯的那位總督。這些錢幣與《使徒行傳》24至25章的羅馬背景相符，但從未提到任何總督的名字，因此單憑它們無法確定非斯都何時到任；各種推算從公元54年到61年不等。", "dating": "尼祿第五年（標為L E），即公元58/59年；尼祿於54年10月繼克勞第之位（蘇埃托尼烏斯，《克勞第傳》45）；RPC把這個類型定於公元59年", "currentLocation": "存世標本眾多；RPC I 4972著錄了34枚，分藏於公私收藏。", "establishes": [ "尼祿在位第五年（標為L E，公元58/59年），有小銅幣以他的名義為猶太鑄造。一面在花環內鑄有尼祿的名字；另一面在棕櫚枝旁標出年份和凱撒之名。RPC把這個類型列於耶路撒冷名下，編為RPC I 4972，並定於公元59年。", "標為克勞第第十四年（公元54年；RPC I 4970-4971）、在腓力斯任內鑄造的猶太錢幣，同樣沒有提到總督的名字。據Madden（1881年）記述，De Saulcy把第五年的類型歸於波求．非斯都，許多現代目錄也沿用他的看法。《使徒行傳》24:27和約瑟夫斯（《猶太古史》20.182；《猶太戰記》2.271）都說非斯都是腓力斯的繼任者，約瑟夫斯還說是尼祿派他來的。", "非斯都在阿爾比努斯到任之前死於任上（《猶太古史》20.197-200），而在戰爭爆發前四年的住棚節，阿爾比努斯已經是巡撫（《猶太戰記》6.300-305），因此非斯都的任期至遲在公元62年結束。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些錢幣沒有提到總督的名字。它們屬於非斯都還是腓力斯，取決於所採用的年代體系：Madden（1881年）把非斯都定於公元60至61年，並把第五年的類型列在腓力斯名下。", "它們不能確定非斯都到任的年份。把它們視為他的首批鑄幣，是假定新任總督到任後不久就會鑄幣。約瑟夫斯敘述腓力斯受任，緊接在一件定於克勞第在位滿十二年之後的事件之前（約公元53年；《猶太古史》20.137），然而他任內帶有克勞第紀年的猶太錢幣卻屬於公元54年。按這項推論，鑄幣未必緊隨到任。", "它們沒有提到保羅、他在腓力斯和非斯都面前的聽審，也沒有提到他被拘押了多久（《使徒行傳》24:27）。" ], "debate": "非斯都何時到任，取決於腓力斯何時被召回，學者的定年從公元54年到61年不等。較早的定年依據優西比烏的《編年紀》——其亞美尼亞文本把召回放在克勞第在位的最後一年，耶柔米的版本則放在尼祿在位第二年——以及約瑟夫斯的一句話：於55年被免職的帕拉斯仍然庇護腓力斯（《猶太古史》20.182；塔西佗，《編年史》13.14）。Schürer回應說，《編年紀》的年份常常是隨意定的；約瑟夫斯把腓力斯幾乎所有的作為都放在尼祿治下；而且帕拉斯在55年底之前已洗脫一項指控（《編年史》13.23）。保羅稱讚腓力斯長年擔任這民族的審判官、經驗豐富（《使徒行傳》24:10），這也暗示他任期很長。Ramsay根據《使徒行傳》27:9所說已經過去的禁食節來推定航程的年份；在59年，這個禁食節落在10月5日。如果第五年的錢幣屬於非斯都，他在公元59年已經在任，這不利於60年或61年之說；但這種讀法依據的是一枚沒有提到總督名字的錢幣，以及一種假定的鑄幣模式。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "腓力斯提早被召回（公元54至55年）", "statement": "據Schürer（1890年）記述，Kellner把腓力斯被召回定於54年11月，V. Weber則定於55年夏天，依據是優西比烏的《編年紀》以及帕拉斯對尼祿的影響力（《猶太古史》20.182）。Schürer回應說，約瑟夫斯把腓力斯幾乎所有的作為都放在尼祿治下，而且帕拉斯在55年底之前已獲判無罪（塔西佗，《編年史》13.23）。按這種早期說法，第五年的錢幣會落在任期中段。" }, { "label": "公元59年到任（Ramsay）", "statement": "Ramsay根據曆法論證、而非錢幣論證，把前往羅馬的航程定在59年秋天：《使徒行傳》27:9所說已經過去的禁食節，在59年落在10月5日。他的年表索引把保羅在巴勒斯坦的監禁定於57年6月至59年7月，因此按他的推算，非斯都於59年到任。這與把第五年的錢幣歸於非斯都、視為他上任頭幾個月所鑄的看法一致。" }, { "label": "傳統定年（公元60年）", "statement": "Schürer在1890年考察的大多數研究者，都把腓力斯被召回定於60年；McGiffert（1890年）追隨Wieseler，把非斯都就任的最寬範圍定為59至61年。Gray-Fow（2016年）仍把60年夏天視為傳統定年。按這種看法，第五年的錢幣是在腓力斯任內發行的，正如Madden在1881年所列；按他的列表，目前沒有已知的非斯都錢幣。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-festus-coins" }, { "id": "aretas-damascus", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": -9, "dateTo": 40, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 4781-4806 (civic coinage of Damascus, 37/36 BC to AD 65/6)", "RPC I 4800-4802A (Damascus under Tiberius, year 345 = AD 33/4, the last dated issue before the gap)", "RPC I 4803-4806 (Damascus under Nero, year 377 = AD 65/6)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "2 Corinthians 11:32-33", "Acts 9:23-25", "Acts 9:26", "Galatians 1:17-18", "Galatians 1:21" ], "personIds": [ "person.aretas", "person.paul", "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.damascus", "place.nabatea", "place.arabia", "place.syria" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.109-115 (Whiston 18.5.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "So Herod wrote about these affairs to Tiberius, who being very angry at the attempt made by Aretas, wrote to Vitellius to make war upon him, and either to take him alive, and bring him to him in bonds, or to kill him, and send him his head.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.120-129 (Whiston 18.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But when on the fourth day letters came to him, which informed him of the death of Tiberius, he obliged the multitude to take an oath of fidelity to Caius; he also recalled his army, and made them every one go home, and take their winter quarters there", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 16.293-299 (Whiston 16.9.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=16:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "who indeed was angry that Aretas had not sent to him first before he took the kingdom", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 16.351-355 (Whiston 16.10.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=16:whiston%20chapter=10:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "so he admitted Aretas's ambassadors; and after he had just reproved him for his rashness, in not tarrying till he received the kingdom from him, he accepted of his presents, and confirmed him in his government.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 14.117 (Whiston 14.7.2), quoting Strabo on the Jews of Egypt", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=14:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is also an ethnarch allowed them, who governs the nation, and distributes justice to them, and takes care of their contracts, and of the laws to them belonging, as if he were the ruler of a free republic.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.93 (Whiston 2.6.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he gave the one half of Herod's kingdom to Archelaus, by the name of Ethnarch, and promised to make him king also afterward, if he rendered himself worthy of that dignity.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 13.392 (Whiston 13.15.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=13:whiston%20chapter=15:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "reigned over Celesyria, being called to the government by those that held Damascus, by reason of the hatred they bare to Ptolemy Menneus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924", "work": "Roman History, Book 59", "locator": "59.12.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he granted to Sohaemus the land of the Ituraean Arabians, to Cotys Lesser Armenia", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "year": "1790 (London: Religious Tract Society printing, 1852)", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "locator": "ch. IV (Second Epistle to the Corinthians), No. II", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horaepaulinaeort00pale_0/horaepaulinaeort00pale_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The account in the Epistle of St. Paul’s escape from Damascus, though agreeing in the main fact with the account of the same transaction in the Acts, is related with such difference of circumstance, as renders it utterly improbable that one should be derived from the other.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Aretas IV Philopatris", "locator": "Q302986", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q302986.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Damascus", "locator": "Pleiades 678106", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/678106/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Rainer Riesner", "work": "\"Pauline Chronology,\" in Stephen Westerholm (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Paul", "year": "2011", "view": "Neither literary nor numismatic evidence establishes that Gaius handed Damascus to Aretas or that the Nabataeans seized it. Aretas's official was probably the overseer of the Nabataean quarter of Damascus, as the Jewish ethnarch was at Alexandria. The only firm point is that the flight came before Aretas IV died in AD 40. Riesner dates Paul's call to 31/32 and his first Jerusalem visit to 33/34." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I, vol. II, Appendix II (English translation by John Macpherson)", "year": "1890", "view": "Takes 2 Corinthians 11:32 to show that Damascus then belonged to Aretas, probably restored to him by Gaius, noting that no Damascus coins with the emperor's image are known from Gaius and Claudius. Judges a forcible seizure very improbable. Reports el-Hegr inscriptions and coins of Aretas IV reaching his 48th year." }, { "author": "Benjamin W. Bacon", "work": "A Criticism of the New Chronology of Paul, II (The Expositor, 5th series, vol. 10)", "year": "1899", "view": "Argues that Aretas was probably not in control of Damascus before late AD 38. Reports Holtzmann's view that Aretas's official was only the representative of Arabian interests in the city, and doubts that such a consul-like appointee could guard a Roman-held city to stop a Roman citizen leaving. Inclines to Weizsäcker's view that the escape belongs c. AD 39, after Paul's first Jerusalem visit." }, { "author": "Douglas A. Campbell", "work": "\"An Anchor for Pauline Chronology: Paul's Flight from 'the Ethnarch of King Aretas' (2 Corinthians 11:32-33),\" Journal of Biblical Literature 121", "year": "2002", "view": "Treats the flight from Aretas's official as a fixed point on which to build a Pauline chronology from the letters, and dates it narrowly in the later 30s." }, { "author": "Laurence L. Welborn", "work": "\"The Runaway Paul,\" Harvard Theological Review 92", "year": "1999", "view": "Calls the episode important for chronology because Aretas is the only political figure named in an authentic letter of Paul, and notes that Acts 9:23-25 parallels it in partly overlapping wording, which is unusual for Acts." }, { "author": "Laurence L. Welborn", "work": "\"Primum tirocinium Pauli (2 Cor 11,32-33),\" Biblische Zeitschrift 43", "year": "1999", "view": "As Riesner (2011) reports it, argues that Gaius (Caligula) handed Damascus over to Aretas IV in 37-39." }, { "author": "Martin Hengel and Anna Maria Schwemer", "work": "Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years", "year": "1997", "view": "As cited by Riesner, they hold that the literary sources do not establish Nabataean rule of Damascus, and that Paul's early activity in the Nabataean kingdom may explain Aretas's hostility." }, { "author": "Zeyad Al-Salameen", "work": "\"A new Ancient North Arabian inscription with a reference to the Nabataean king Aretas,\" Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 22", "year": "2011", "view": "Publishes an inscription from al-Hussayniah, north of Ma'an, dated to the year a king Aretas died. He takes this most likely to be Aretas IV's death in AD 40." }, { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992 (online edition 2019)", "view": "Catalogues Damascus's civic coinage as RPC I 4781-4806 with 4802A. Dated issues under Tiberius end with year 345 (AD 33/4); the next secure issues are Nero's, of year 377 (AD 65/6), and none of Gaius or Claudius are listed." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q302986", "label": "Aretas IV Philopatris" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3766", "label": "Damascus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678106", "label": "Damascus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q11029653", "label": "Nabataean kingdom" } ], "title": "國王亞哩達四世與保羅逃離大馬士革", "summary": "約瑟夫斯證實了亞哩達四世的存在；在同名諸王之中，只有他的在位時期與保羅的生平相合，所以他就是《哥林多後書》11:32所說的那位王。有紀年的銘文和錢幣把他的在位時間定為約公元前9年至公元40年，因此保羅坐筐子逃離大馬士革，是在約公元40年之前。當時亞哩達是否控制大馬士革，尚未得到證實；這個主張依據的是該城鑄幣的一段空缺，以及如何理解亞哩達手下官員的頭銜——約瑟夫斯既用這個詞指一地的統治者，也用它指一個群體的首領。", "dating": "亞哩達四世在位：約公元前9年至公元40年。保羅的逃脫發生在亞哩達去世之前，並在寫於五十年代中期的《哥林多後書》中被追述。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承（約瑟夫斯，《猶太古史》和《猶太戰記》；卡西烏斯．狄奧）。大馬士革的城市錢幣分藏於多家博物館和私人收藏，並著錄於RPC。", "establishes": [ "亞哩達四世是一位在新約以外有記載可證的拿巴提國王。約瑟夫斯記載，他在奧博達斯死後掌權，而奧古斯都只是勉強承認他。約瑟夫斯又記載他擊敗希律．安提帕，以及維特里烏斯在公元37年得知提庇留去世的消息後，放棄了進軍討伐亞哩達。", "他的在位時間推算為約公元前9年至公元40年，但登基年份並不確定。Schürer（1890年）記述了el-Hegr標為他在位第48年的銘文和錢幣；Al-Salameen（2011年）發表了一件銘文，其年份標為某位亞哩達王去世之年，最可能是公元40年的亞哩達四世。", "保羅說，亞哩達王手下的官員看守大馬士革，要捉拿他，因此這次逃脫（《哥林多後書》11:32-33；參《使徒行傳》9:23-25）發生在約公元40年之前。如果逃脫發生在保羅第一次上耶路撒冷之前（《使徒行傳》9:23-26；《加拉太書》1:17-18），他的歸信就不晚於約公元37年。", "RPC I著錄了提庇留時期、紀年直到第345年（公元33/4年）的大馬士革城市錢幣。下一批可確定的鑄幣屬於尼祿時期（第377年，公元65/6年），而蓋烏斯皇帝或克勞第時期的大馬士革鑄幣均無著錄。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這不能表明亞哩達管治過大馬士革。沒有任何銘文、錢幣或非基督教文獻這樣說。狄奧所列蓋烏斯皇帝在公元38年的封賜，提到了阿拉伯的領土，卻沒有提到亞哩達或大馬士革（59.12.2）。", "鑄幣的空缺不能證明統治者已經更替。大馬士革只是間歇地鑄幣：RPC I在公元前4/3年至公元13/14年之間沒有任何帶紀年的鑄幣。這段空缺屬於默證。", "這既不能確定逃脫的年份，也不能使《使徒行傳》和《哥林多後書》成為完全獨立的見證。學者主張的年份從三十年代初到公元39/40年不等，而且兩段記載有一些共同的措辭。", "《使徒行傳》和保羅所說的追捕者不同：在《使徒行傳》中，是猶太人在城門守候（《使徒行傳》9:23-24）；保羅則點名亞哩達手下的官員（《哥林多後書》11:32）。任何調和方案，例如雙方合作，都屬於推論。" ], "debate": "懸而未決的問題是：亞哩達在大馬士革的那位官員究竟是什麼身分。Schürer（1890年）認為，保羅的話表示大馬士革當時屬於亞哩達，很可能是蓋烏斯皇帝把它歸還給他的，並以該城鑄幣的空缺為證；據Riesner（2011年）記述，Welborn主張蓋烏斯皇帝曾在37至39年間移交該城。Bacon（1899年）認為，任何這類控制都不早於38年末。Riesner引用Hengel、Schwemer等人的看法，認為無論是封賜還是奪取，都未得到證實。據Bacon（1899年）記述，Holtzmann把這位官員理解為阿拉伯利益在大馬士革的代表；Riesner則把他理解為該城拿巴提人聚居區的主管，就像約瑟夫斯引用斯特拉波時稱為ethnarch（族長）的那位亞歷山大猶太人首領（《猶太古史》14.117）。Campbell把這次逃脫視為保羅年代學的一個定點。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "拿巴提統治該城，約公元37至40年", "statement": "亞哩達曾透過他的官員短暫管治大馬士革，或許是提庇留死後蓋烏斯皇帝封賜的結果。佔據大馬士革的人曾經請較早的一位亞哩達來統治柯里敘利亞（《猶太古史》13.392）；約瑟夫斯也把同一個頭銜用於亞基老，指他統治大希律一半的王國（《猶太戰記》2.93）。這樣，鑄幣的空缺便說得通，逃脫落在約公元37至40年；再結合《加拉太書》1:18，保羅的歸信就移到三十年代中期。" }, { "label": "官員是群體首領或王室代理人", "statement": "大馬士革始終是羅馬敘利亞的一座城市。亞哩達的官員要麼是當地拿巴提人群體的首領（Riesner），要麼是代表國王利益的代理人（Holtzmann，據Bacon記述）。無論哪種情況，他都可以在不統治該城的情況下守候保羅，因此逃脫可能發生在三十年代較早的時候。Bacon（1899年）懷疑這樣一位受委任的人，能否把守一座由羅馬人掌控的城市，阻止人離開。" }, { "label": "一個範圍狹窄的錨定年份", "statement": "Campbell把逃離亞哩達官員一事，作為一套以書信建構的年表的錨點，並把它定在三十年代後期的狹窄範圍內。Riesner（2011年）反駁說，拿巴提對大馬士革的管治權無法確立，因此唯一確定的一點，是這次出逃發生在公元40年亞哩達去世之前。" }, { "label": "逃脫的時間晚於《使徒行傳》的安排", "statement": "Weizsäcker——Bacon（1899年）記述其說並初步採納——把逃脫放在約公元39年保羅後來一次停留大馬士革期間，即他第一次上耶路撒冷（《使徒行傳》9:26）之後、在敘利亞和基利家工作期間（《加拉太書》1:21）。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》9章把這段經過放錯了位置。" }, { "label": "共同傳統或文學依賴", "statement": "佩利（1790年）把兩段記載並列：一段說國王的官員把守城池，另一段說猶太人在城門守候；他判斷兩者在情節上差異太大，不可能一段出自另一段。Welborn指出，兩者在措辭上部分一致，這在《使徒行傳》與書信之間並不常見。《使徒行傳》究竟用了保羅的書信，還是一個共同傳統，仍無定論。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-aretas-damascus" }, { "id": "aratus-epimenides-menander", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": -343, "dateTo": -274, "corpusReferences": [ "Aratus, Phaenomena 5 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0653.tlg001)", "Menander, Thais fr. 218 Kock", "Euripides fr. 1013 Nauck (cross-reference given by Allinson 1921)", "Callimachus, Hymn 1 (To Zeus) 8", "Diogenes Laertius 1.109-112 (Epimenides)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:28", "Acts 17:22-31", "1 Corinthians 15:33", "Titus 1:12-13", "Acts 22:3" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.athens", "place.areopagus", "place.crete", "place.corinth", "place.tarsus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "Aratus", "work": "Phaenomena (English translation, Loeb Classical Library)", "translator": "G. R. Mair", "year": "1921", "locator": "Phaen. 4-6 (English translation)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "always we all have need of Zeus. For we are also his offspring; and he in his kindness unto men giveth favourable signs and wakeneth the people to work", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "Aratus", "work": "Phaenomena (Greek text, ed. G. R. Mair)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Phaen. 5", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0483", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "τοῦ γάρ καὶ γένος εἰμέν", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "G. R. Mair", "work": "Introduction to Aratus, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Introduction to Aratus, p. 360 (birthplace)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Aratus of Soli in Cilicia—as distinct from Soli in Cyprus—was the son of Athenodorus and Letophila", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "G. R. Mair", "work": "Introduction to Aratus, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Introduction to Aratus, p. 363 (date of the Phaenomena)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This must have been between 276-274, because in the latter year this literary circle was broken up by the invasion of Pyrrhus", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.14 (Epimenides)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "others, Epimenides the Cretan, whom Paul knew as a Greek prophet, whom he mentions in the Epistle to Titus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.14 (Greek poems; 1 Corinthians line)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "is not ashamed, when discoursing for the edification of some and the shaming of others, to make use of Greek poems. Accordingly to the Corinthians (for this is not the only instance), while discoursing on the resurrection of the dead, he makes use of a tragic Iambic line", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.19 (Aratus)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Whence it is evident that the apostle, by availing himself of poetical examples from the Phenomena of Aratus, approves of what had been well spoken by the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (date of Epimenides' visit to Athens)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he came in the 46th Olympiad", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.111 (works ascribed to Epimenides)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote a poem On the Birth of the Curetes and Corybantes and a Theogony", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Francis G. Allinson", "work": "Menander: The Principal Fragments (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "view": "Prints the line of 1 Corinthians 15:33, in its elided form, as Menander, Thais fr. 218 Kock, and cross-references Euripides fr. 1013 Nauck." }, { "author": "A. W. Mair", "work": "Callimachus: Hymns, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "view": "Prints Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus, whose line 8 opens with the same three words as Titus 1:12, and annotates the saying as proverbial and attributed to Epimenides." }, { "author": "J. Rendel Harris", "work": "The Cretans Always Liars (The Expositor, 7th series, vol. 2)", "year": "1906", "view": "Argues from a passage in the Syriac Gannat Busame, which he took to come from Theodore of Mopsuestia, that the first clause of Acts 17:28 also derives from Epimenides." }, { "author": "Martin Dibelius", "work": "Paulus auf dem Areopag", "year": "1939", "view": "Reads the Areopagus speech as a Lukan literary composition in a Hellenistic philosophical idiom, not as a record of Paul's own words." }, { "author": "Bertil Gärtner", "work": "The Areopagus Speech and Natural Revelation", "year": "1955", "view": "Argues against Dibelius that the speech's thought is rooted in Old Testament and Jewish tradition, with the Greek citations used in its service." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "Paul in Athens: The Popular Religious Context of Acts 17 (WUNT 341)", "year": "2014", "view": "Argues that popular second-century traditions about Epimenides make sense of the Athens episode, including the unknown-god altar and the first clause of Acts 17:28, and that scholars have overlooked them in favour of the philosophers named in the chapter." }, { "author": "Erkki Koskenniemi", "work": "The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth (Filología Neotestamentaria 24)", "year": "2011", "view": "Argues that the Cretan-liar proverb came first, was turned into a logical paradox, and was attached to Epimenides only later and ahistorically, so the verse in Titus does not prove that its writer knew classical literature well." }, { "author": "John Granger Cook", "work": "Titus 1,12: Epimenides, Ancient Christian Scholars, Zeus's Death, and the Cretan Paradox (Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 25)", "year": "2021", "view": "Reads Titus 1:12 in its history-of-religions context rather than as a liar's paradox." }, { "author": "I. Howard Marshall (with Philip H. Towner)", "work": "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (ICC)", "year": "1999", "view": "Holds that a Pauline associate wrote the Pastorals under Paul's name without deceptive intent ('allonymity'), rather than Paul himself." }, { "author": "William D. Mounce", "work": "Pastoral Epistles (Word Biblical Commentary 46)", "year": "2000", "view": "Defends Pauline authorship of the Pastorals and explains their stylistic differences partly by an amanuensis." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q180671", "label": "Aratus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q42194191", "label": "Phaenomena (poem by Aratus)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319406", "label": "Epimenides of Crete" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q118992", "label": "Menander" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q192417", "label": "Callimachus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1992415", "label": "Stromata (Clement of Alexandria)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q4789055", "label": "Areopagus sermon" } ], "title": "《使徒行傳》和保羅書信所引的希臘詩人：阿拉托斯、米南德與「埃庇米尼得斯」", "summary": "《使徒行傳》和保羅書信中有三行文字重現了希臘詩句。《使徒行傳》17:28與阿拉托斯《天象》（Phaenomena，公元前三世紀）第5行的前半相符。《哥林多前書》15:33除了一個未省音的元音之外，與一行被印作米南德作品的抑揚格三音步詩句相符，出自他已失傳的喜劇《泰伊絲》（Thais）。《提多書》1:12是一行六音步詩句，亞歷山大的革利免把它歸於克里特的先見埃庇米尼得斯。這些詩句顯示了希臘文學的視野，卻不表示保羅讀過這些詩人的作品，也不表示雅典的演講是逐字記錄。", "dating": "詩作：第歐根尼．拉爾修把埃庇米尼得斯定於第46屆奧林匹亞紀（公元前596至593年），這是傳說性的年代，而他的作品沒有一部完整留存；米南德：公元前343/42至292/91年（Allinson）；阿拉托斯《天象》：約公元前276至274年（Mair的推斷）；卡利馬科斯《宙斯頌》：公元前三世紀。所引最早的基督教歸屬說法：亞歷山大的革利免，《雜記》（約公元200年）。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "《使徒行傳》17:28歸於希臘詩人的話，與阿拉托斯《天象》第5行的前半相符；希臘文原文只在動詞形式上有別（阿拉托斯用史詩體的εἰμέν）。阿拉托斯來自基利家的索利；按Mair 1921年的定年，他約於公元前276至274年寫成這首詩。", "《哥林多前書》15:33除了一個未省音的元音之外，與一行抑揚格三音步詩句相符；Allinson（1921年）把它印作米南德的作品，即《泰伊絲》fr. 218 Kock。這部劇作已經失傳，因此這項歸屬依據的是古代的證言，而非現存的文本。亞歷山大的革利免早已稱這行詩為借用來的「悲劇抑揚格詩句」。", "《提多書》1:12引用一行六音步詩句，作為一位克里特先知的話。它的頭三個詞也是卡利馬科斯《宙斯頌》（公元前三世紀）第8行的開頭；Mair 1921年的Loeb版註明這是一句歸於埃庇米尼得斯的諺語。革利免指出，《提多書》中的那位先知就是埃庇米尼得斯（《雜記》1.14）。", "亞歷山大的革利免在《雜記》1.14和1.19中引用了全部三行詩句。他說保羅不以使用希臘詩作為恥，又根據阿拉托斯的那句引文，論證保羅認可希臘人說得好的話。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這並不表明保羅親自讀過阿拉托斯、米南德或埃庇米尼得斯的作品。每一行都簡短而便於引用；《哥林多前書》的那一行，革利免稱之為「悲劇」詩句，Allinson卻把它印在米南德的殘篇中，並同時參照歐里庇得斯。這符合它作為格言流傳的情況。", "這並不表明那行克里特詩句出自埃庇米尼得斯之手。他的作品沒有一部完整留存，而這裡所引最早的歸屬（革利免，約公元200年），比第歐根尼．拉爾修給他定的年代晚了約八個世紀。", "這也不能確定《提多書》的作者是誰，或《使徒行傳》17章在多大程度上重現了保羅在雅典所說的話。這些引文與保羅作者說、路加撰寫演講之說，或後來一位屬保羅傳統的作者之說，都可以相容。" ], "debate": "有五個問題仍未解決。第一，路加是否以希臘化的表達方式撰寫了亞略巴古演講（Dibelius），抑或演講中的希臘引文是為一套聖經神學服務（Gärtner）？第二，《使徒行傳》17:28的第一個子句是否也取材自埃庇米尼得斯？Harris根據一部他認為保存了摩普綏提亞的狄奧多若之說的敘利亞文註釋書如此主張，Rothschild則根據民間流傳的埃庇米尼得斯傳統如此主張。第三，那行克里特詩句是埃庇米尼得斯寫的，還是他的名字後來才被附加到一句已經成為邏輯悖論的諺語上（Koskenniemi）？Cook把這行詩放在宗教史的背景中解讀，而不是視之為悖論。第四，《哥林多前書》的那一行是米南德的、某位悲劇作家的，還是通用的套語？第五，《提多書》是保羅寫的（Mounce），還是他的一位同工寫的（Marshall）？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "保羅親自引用", "statement": "保羅是來自大數、說希臘話的猶太人（《使徒行傳》22:3），他憑學校程度對希臘詩人的認識，揀選了適合聽眾的詩句。革利免就是這樣理解這些詩句的（《雜記》1.14；1.19）；至於《提多書》，Mounce為保羅的作者身分辯護。" }, { "label": "作為諺語流傳", "statement": "這些詩句是常見的格言，因此引用它們顯示的是熟悉希臘的格言傳統，而不是研讀過詩人的作品。《哥林多前書》那一行的出處不確定——是米南德的喜劇，還是革利免所說的「悲劇」所暗示的某部悲劇——也指向這個方向。" }, { "label": "雅典演講出自路加手筆", "statement": "阿拉托斯的引文，屬於路加對一篇希臘化風格演講的文學塑造（Dibelius）。按這種看法，它顯示的是《使徒行傳》作者的學養，未必是保羅的。" }, { "label": "埃庇米尼得斯是後來的歸屬", "statement": "那行克里特六音步詩句，可能原是無名氏的詩句，在成了諺語和邏輯謎題之後，才被歸於埃庇米尼得斯（Koskenniemi）。卡利馬科斯使用了它的開頭幾個詞，這只表明那半行詩在公元前三世紀已經流行。" }, { "label": "保羅以後的《提多書》", "statement": "如果《提多書》是一位同工在保羅死後寫成的（Marshall所說的「allonymity」），其中的引文顯示的是保羅圈子的文學視野，而非保羅本人的。" }, { "label": "出自歐里庇得斯或通用套語，而非米南德", "statement": "革利免稱《哥林多前書》的那一行為「悲劇」詩句，Allinson也參照歐里庇得斯fr. 1013 Nauck。這行詩可能不只一位詩人用過，也可能在米南德之前已是諺語。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-aratus-epimenides-menander" }, { "id": "josephus-agrippa-death", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 93, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae 19.343-350 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001)", "Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 2.218-219 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 12:19-23", "Acts 12:1-4", "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 12:24-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.barnabas", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.judea", "place.tyre", "place.sidon" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.343 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Agrippa had reigned three years over all Judea, he came to the city Cesarea, which was formerly called Strato's Tower; and there he exhibited shows in honor of Caesar", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.344 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the second day of which shows he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a contexture truly wonderful, and came into the theater early in the morning", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.345 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and another from another, (though not for his good,) that he was a god", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.346 (Whiston 19.8.2; no rebuke and the owl)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Upon this the king did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery. But as he presently afterward looked up, he saw an owl", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.346 (Whiston 19.8.2; the owl as messenger)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "immediately understood that this bird was the messenger of ill tidings, as it had once been the messenger of good tidings to him", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.347 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I, whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this life; while Providence thus reproves the lying words you just now said to me", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.350 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when he had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly for five days, he departed this life, being in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and in the seventh year of his reign", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 18.200 (owl omen, 18.195-202; Whiston 18.6.7)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=7", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But do thou remember, when thou seest this bird again, that thou wilt then live but five days longer.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 17.168-169 (Whiston 17.6.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=17:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But now Herod's distemper greatly increased upon him after a severe manner, and this by God's judgment upon him for his sins", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.101 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under these procurators that great famine happened in Judea, in which queen Helena bought corn in Egypt at a great expense, and distributed it to those that were in want", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.218-219 (Whiston 2.11.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=11:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but his death, which happened at Cesarea, before he had raised the walls to their due height, prevented him. He had then reigned three years, as he had governed his tetrarchies three other years.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.10.6", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But after a little, looking up, he saw an angel sitting above his head.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.10.10", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the time at least and the events show that the same person is meant, whether the change of name has been caused by the error of a copyist, or is due to the fact that he, like so many, bore two names", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Agrippa I", "locator": "Q298636", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q298636.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place: Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea", "locator": "678401", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/678401/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Max Krenkel", "work": "Josephus und Lucas: der schriftstellerische Einfluss des jüdischen Geschichtschreibers auf den christlichen", "year": "1894", "view": "Argues that Luke drew on Josephus in many passages, but for Acts 12 judges it doubtful: the Tyre and Sidon embassy and Blastus point to a source other than Josephus. He takes the acclamation at Caesarea and the sudden fatal illness as a shared historical core, and the owl, the angel and the worms as legend." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Lists Agrippa's death among the points where Luke-Acts agrees with Josephus and finds it easier to believe that Luke knew something of Josephus's work than that the agreements arose independently, while granting that this cannot be proved. On this view Luke-Acts postdates the Antiquities." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Argues that the author of Acts knew Josephus's later writings and that Acts is better dated to the second century, around 115." }, { "author": "O. Wesley Allen Jr.", "work": "The Death of Herod: The Narrative and Theological Function of Retribution in Luke-Acts (SBL Dissertation Series 158)", "year": "1997", "view": "Reads Acts 12:19b-24 against death-of-tyrant scenes in biblical and Greco-Roman literature. He treats the death as divine retribution for Herod's failure to give glory to God, a theme that does literary work across Luke-Acts." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Defends the historical reliability of Acts in general by comparing its details with literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence from its setting." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q298636", "label": "Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319242", "label": "Caesarea Maritima" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯論希律．亞基帕一世在凱撒利亞之死", "summary": "非基督教的歷史學家約瑟夫斯，概略記述了《使徒行傳》12:19-23所記的那次死亡。在《猶太古史》19.343-350（完成於公元93/94年）中，希律．亞基帕一世——即《使徒行傳》12章中的希律——接受了眾人奉他為神的歡呼，又被突如其來的劇痛擊倒，死於凱撒利亞。他在位年數的記載，通常被理解為把死亡定於公元44年。兩份記述在場合、預兆和病症上有所不同，而路加是否知道約瑟夫斯的著作，仍有爭議。", "dating": "《猶太古史》完成於多米田在位第十三年、約瑟夫斯生平第五十六年（《猶太古史》20.267），即公元93/94年。這次死亡通常定於公元44年，這是現代學者根據約瑟夫斯所記在位年數重建的結果；約瑟夫斯沒有給出曆年。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "並非基督徒的約瑟夫斯記載，希律．亞基帕一世在凱撒利亞出席為尊崇凱撒而舉行的賽會之後死去，腹部的劇痛在五天後奪去了他的性命（《猶太古史》19.343-350）。他的《猶太戰記》也把死亡地點定在凱撒利亞（《猶太戰記》2.219）。", "約瑟夫斯與《使徒行傳》12:19-23有一個共同的核心序列：王身穿朝服在凱撒利亞公開露面，被眾人歡呼為神，沒有推辭這份尊榮，隨即突然患上致命的疾病。《使徒行傳》說，主的使者因他不把榮耀歸給神而擊打他；約瑟夫斯則寫希律．亞基帕一世把自己的疼痛理解為命運（Whiston譯作「Providence」，即天意）對那些諂媚者的駁斥。", "約瑟夫斯說，希律．亞基帕一世統治全猶太已有三年，死於在位第七年（《猶太古史》19.343、350；《猶太戰記》2.219）。這些年數結合克勞第登基的時間，通常被理解為把死亡定於公元44年。這個年份是現代的重建；約瑟夫斯沒有給出曆法上的日期。", "《使徒行傳》稱為「希律」的那位王，就是約瑟夫斯所稱的亞基帕，即希律．亞基帕一世。優西比烏早已論證，從時間和事件看，兩處指的是同一個人（《教會史》2.10.10）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能佐證只有路加提供的細節：推羅和西頓派來的使團、伯拉斯都、那篇演講、主的使者，以及因蟲咬而死。約瑟夫斯所記的則是為皇帝而設的賽會、貓頭鷹的預兆和五天的腹痛。", "它本身不能使兩份記述成為獨立的見證。路加是否知道《猶太古史》，抑或兩位作者都取材自共同的傳聞，仍有爭議，因此兩者的吻合不應重複計算。", "它不能為巴拿巴和掃羅送饑荒賑濟的那次探訪定年（《使徒行傳》11:27-30；12:25）。約瑟夫斯把猶太的大饑荒放在希律．亞基帕一世之後的幾任總督任內（《猶太古史》20.101），所以《使徒行傳》把這次死亡安插在那段故事中，可能是按主題，而非嚴格按時序。" ], "debate": "自十九世紀以來，學者一直爭論路加是否知道約瑟夫斯的著作。Krenkel（1894年）主張路加在許多段落中使用了約瑟夫斯，並提出路加以天使取代貓頭鷹的想法——約瑟夫斯稱那隻貓頭鷹為「使者」（希臘文angelos）。不過，就《使徒行傳》12章而言，他判斷推羅和西頓的使團以及伯拉斯都出自另一個來源，因此這裡是否使用了約瑟夫斯就成疑；他又把貓頭鷹、天使和蟲讀作圍繞一個共同歷史核心的傳說。Mason（2003年）把希律．亞基帕一世之死列為若干吻合之一，認為這些吻合使路加知道約瑟夫斯之說比純屬巧合更容易令人相信；Pervo（2006年）則主張路加確實知道，並主張《使徒行傳》成書於二世紀。優西比烏引用這段文字時（《教會史》2.10.6），在約瑟夫斯各抄本作貓頭鷹之處讀作「天使」。兩段敘事也都依循描寫不敬虔統治者的固定模式，因此各自有多少是報導、多少是文學塑造，仍是未決的問題。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加改編了約瑟夫斯的記述", "statement": "《使徒行傳》的作者知道《猶太古史》（完成於公元93/94年），並為基督徒讀者改寫了書中的記述，以天使和蟲取代了貓頭鷹的預兆。Mason（2003年）認為，路加知道約瑟夫斯比純屬巧合更容易令人相信；Pervo（2006年）則主張確有此事。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》寫於九十年代中期以後。" }, { "label": "對一次公開死亡的獨立報導", "statement": "路加和約瑟夫斯各自取材自關於一次死亡的報導，那次死亡在凱撒利亞有許多人目睹。兩者在場合、若干細節和王的名字上都有差異，這不利於文學借用之說；Krenkel雖主張路加在別處使用了約瑟夫斯，卻認為這裡的借用成疑。若是如此，兩者在場景、歡呼和突發疾病上的一致，便是獨立的佐證。" }, { "label": "慣例塑造了兩份記述", "statement": "兩位作者都按一個常見的模式講述這次死亡：接受神聖尊榮的統治者遭到報應。約瑟夫斯本人就把大希律伴有蟲患的致命疾病，描述為神對他罪行的審判（《猶太古史》17.168-169）；《馬加比二書》9章也以同樣方式講述安條克四世。兩份記述共同的輪廓，受這種慣例影響的程度，可能不亞於各自對事件的認識（關於《使徒行傳》，參Allen 1997）。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-agrippa-death" }, { "id": "athens-altar-unknown-god", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 150, "dateTo": 250, "corpusReferences": [ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.1.4; 5.14.8 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001)", "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 1.110 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001)", "Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.3 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:23", "Acts 17:16-34" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.athens", "place.areopagus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "author": "Pausanias", "work": "Description of Greece", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones", "year": "1918", "locator": "1.1.4", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=1:section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here there is also a temple of Athena Sciras, and one of Zeus some distance away, and altars of the gods named Unknown, and of heroes, and of the children of Theseus and Phalerus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "author": "Pausanias", "work": "Description of Greece", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones", "year": "1918", "locator": "5.14.8", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=5:chapter=14:section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "An account of the great altar I gave a little way back; it is called the altar of Olympian Zeus. By it is an altar of Unknown Gods", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (nameless altars)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=1:chapter=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "offer a sacrifice to the local divinity. And thus, it is said, the plague was stayed. Hence even to this day altars may be found in different parts of Attica with no name inscribed upon them, which are memorials of this atonement.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (46th Olympiad)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=1:chapter=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he came in the 46th Olympiad", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "philostratus-conybeare", "author": "Philostratus", "work": "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", "translator": "F. C. Conybeare", "year": "1912", "locator": "6.3", "url": "https://archive.org/download/lifeofapollonius02philuoft/lifeofapollonius02philuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a much greater proof of wisdom and sobriety to speak well of all the gods, especially at Athens, where altars are set up in honour even of unknown gods.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "1.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I find, no doubt, that altars have been lavished on unknown gods; that, however, is the idolatry of Athens. And on uncertain gods; but that, too, is only Roman superstition.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.19 (the unknown God)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "intimates that, by the unknown God, God the Creator was in a roundabout way worshipped by the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Eduard Norden", "work": "Agnostos Theos: Untersuchungen zur Formengeschichte religiöser Rede", "year": "1913", "view": "Finds no attested dedication of an altar to a single unknown god; the pagan reports use the plural. He quotes Jerome's comment on Titus 1:12 about a plural inscription and assigns that fuller wording to a different, probably Roman, altar. He argues that the Areopagus speech depends on a literary account of Apollonius of Tyana at Athens, the change to the singular showing which text is dependent, and rejects Blass's plural conjecture and Usener's memory-slip view." }, { "author": "Adolf Deissmann", "work": "St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History", "year": "1912", "view": "Holds that anonymous altars and altars to unknown gods were not altogether rare. He argues that a Pergamon altar, probably of the second century AD and restored by Hepding as a torchbearer's dedication to unknown gods, makes Pausanias and Philostratus credible, while granting that certainty is unattainable. In his view the altar Paul read was probably one Athenian's thank-offering to a single unknown god." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "Paul in Athens: The Popular Religious Context of Acts 17 (WUNT 341)", "year": "2014", "view": "Popular second-century traditions about the Cretan seer Epimenides, which Rothschild connects with the altar to an unknown god, explain the apparently ad hoc features of Acts 17 and reinforce Luke's theme of cult transfer." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q114315369", "label": "Unknown Gods" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3825645", "label": "Description of Greece" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1225196", "label": "Life of Apollonius of Tyana" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1282359", "label": "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319406", "label": "Epimenides of Crete" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q4789055", "label": "Areopagus sermon" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "580072", "label": "Phaleron" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "579885", "label": "Athenae" } ], "title": "雅典獻給未識諸神的祭壇：保薩尼亞斯、斐洛斯特拉圖斯與第歐根尼．拉爾修", "summary": "公元二至三世紀的非基督教作者記載，雅典及其港口法勒隆有獻給未識諸神的祭壇，但用的總是複數；沒有一位證實《使徒行傳》17:23那種單數的獻詞。保薩尼亞斯提到法勒隆有一些祭壇，獻給「名為『未識』」的諸神。斐洛斯特拉圖斯讓阿波羅尼烏斯提到雅典的這類祭壇，第歐根尼．拉爾修則講述遍佈阿提卡的無名祭壇。這背景與《使徒行傳》相符；確切的措辭仍未得到證實。", "dating": "公元二至三世紀（保薩尼亞斯，二世紀；斐洛斯特拉圖斯和第歐根尼．拉爾修，三世紀）。基督教方面的評論來自亞歷山大的革利免和特土良（約公元200年）；耶柔米較晚關於一段複數銘文的記述（四世紀末），這裡是透過Norden得知的。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "保薩尼亞斯（公元二世紀）記載，雅典的港口法勒隆有一些祭壇，獻給「名為『未識』」的諸神；奧林匹亞的奧林匹斯宙斯祭壇旁也有一座未識諸神的祭壇（1.1.4；5.14.8）。", "斐洛斯特拉圖斯（公元三世紀）讓提亞納的阿波羅尼烏斯在一段設定於埃及的對話中，勸人對所有神明都要說好話，「尤其是在雅典，那裡連未識的眾神也有人為之設壇尊崇」（《阿波羅尼烏斯傳》6.3）。希臘文原文說的是未識的daimones，Conybeare譯作「gods」（眾神）。", "第歐根尼．拉爾修（1.110）保存了一個傳統：埃庇米尼得斯在遊蕩的羊群所選定的地點獻祭，止住了雅典的一場瘟疫；那次潔淨禮所留下的無名祭壇，在阿提卡仍可找到。", "《使徒行傳》17:23所描述的祭壇，屬於非基督教作者證實存在的一類，但他們只用複數。特土良在一段既沒有提到《使徒行傳》、也沒有提到保羅的文字中，是另一個複數的見證：他把獻給未識諸神的祭壇稱為雅典的偶像崇拜（《駁馬吉安》1.9）。亞歷山大的革利免認為，保羅的話暗示希臘人透過那位未識之神，間接敬拜了創造主神（《雜記》1.19）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些作者都沒有描述一座獻給單一位未識之神的祭壇。他們支持的是祭壇的類型，而不是《使徒行傳》所記那種確切的單數獻詞。", "他們無法確定保羅據說看見的那座祭壇在哪裡、是哪一座。一項正確的地方細節，本身並不能證實亞略巴古演講或這場景的其餘部分。", "第歐根尼所說的無名祭壇，並沒有被稱為獻給未識諸神的祭壇；他關於埃庇米尼得斯的故事，是一個設定在第46屆奧林匹亞紀、即公元前六世紀初的傳說。" ], "debate": "未決的問題在於單數。保薩尼亞斯、斐洛斯特拉圖斯和特土良說到未識之神時都用複數。Norden（1913年）引用耶柔米對《提多書》1:12的註釋：耶柔米說，那段銘文是複數的，列出亞洲、歐洲和非洲的眾神，以及未識和外來的諸神，而保羅為了論證的需要，把它改成了單數。Norden把這段較完整的措辭歸於另一座祭壇，很可能在羅馬，並把《使徒行傳》中的單數讀作對阿波羅尼烏斯傳統中一個複數母題的改寫。Deissmann（1912年）認為，一位敬拜者可能為單一位未識之神獻上祭壇；他舉出別迦摩的一座祭壇為例，但把它復原為獻給未識諸神的獻詞，本身就不確定。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "改編過的複數套語", "statement": "耶柔米認為，真正的銘文是複數的，保羅之所以以單數引用，是因為他的論證需要一位神。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》改編了一種真實的獻詞類型。引用耶柔米的Norden判斷，耶柔米那段較完整的措辭出自另一座祭壇，很可能在羅馬，而一位較早的解經者錯把它認作雅典的那一座。" }, { "label": "文學借用", "statement": "Norden主張，亞略巴古演講依賴一份描寫提亞納的阿波羅尼烏斯在雅典講話的文學記述，而從複數改為單數，顯示借用的一方是《使徒行傳》。這個論證有賴於從斐洛斯特拉圖斯三世紀的著作中，重建一份較早的阿波羅尼烏斯記述。" }, { "label": "真有單數的獻詞", "statement": "Deissmann判斷，很可能有人感激一位他叫不出名字的神祇，就為一位未識之神獻上祭壇，正如公元二世紀別迦摩一位得墨忒耳的祭司，顯然曾為未識諸神獻壇一樣。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》可能準確記下了措辭，不過沒有任何單數的祭壇留存下來，而別迦摩那一件的復原也不確定。" }, { "label": "以埃庇米尼得斯傳統為框架", "statement": "Rothschild主張，關於克里特先見埃庇米尼得斯的民間傳統——她把這些傳統與《使徒行傳》17:23的祭壇聯繫起來——可以解釋雅典這段情節中看似臨時湊合的特點，並服務於路加關於崇拜轉移的主題。" }, { "label": "文本訛誤或記憶失誤", "statement": "Norden記述，Blass推測《使徒行傳》原本作複數，Usener則認為保羅記錯了銘文。Norden否定了Blass的推測，因為只有單數才符合演講的論證；他又摒棄Usener的看法，認為那等於放棄任何解答。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-athens-altar-unknown-god" }, { "id": "josephus-felix-drusilla", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 122, "corpusReferences": [ "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Antiquities)", "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)", "urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 (Tacitus, Histories)", "urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi005 (Tacitus, Annals)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 23:24-24:27", "Acts 24:24", "Acts 24:27", "Acts 25:14" ], "personIds": [ "person.felix", "person.drusilla", "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.agrippa", "person.bernice", "person.festus", "person.paul", "person.claudius", "person.nero", "person.josephus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.judea", "place.jerusalem" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.137 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "SO Claudius sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to take care of the affairs of Judea", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.141-144 (Whiston 20.7.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Accordingly she acted ill, and because she was desirous to avoid her sister Bernice's envy, for she was very ill treated by her on account of her beauty, was prevailed upon to transgress the laws of her forefathers, and to marry Felix", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 19.354 (Whiston 19.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "three daughters; one of which, Bernice, was married to Herod, his father's brother, and was sixteen years old; the other two, Mariamne and Drusilla, were still virgins; the former was ten years old, and Drusilla six.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.160-166 (Whiston 20.8.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Felix also bore an ill-will to Jonathan, the high priest, because he frequently gave him admonitions about governing the Jewish affairs better than he did", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.247 (Whiston 2.12.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=12:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.252-253 (Whiston 2.13.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but over the rest of Judea he made Felix procurator. This Felix took Eleazar the arch-robber, and many that were with him, alive, when they had ravaged the country for twenty years together, and sent them to Rome", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.271 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=14:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "NOW it was that Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Histories", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Hist. 5.9", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0080:book=5:chapter=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Antonius Felix, indulging in every kind of barbarity and lust, exercised the power of a king in the spirit of a slave. He had married Drusilla, the granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and so was the grandson-in-law, as Claudius was the grandson, of Antony.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "19th-century translation (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Ann. 12.54", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=54", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Not equally moderate was his brother, surnamed Felix, who had for some time been governor of Judæa, and thought that he could do any evil act with impunity, backed up as he was by such power.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "19th-century translation (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Ann. 13.14", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "The Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "locator": "Claud. 28.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He was equally fond of Felix, giving him the command of cohorts and of troops of horse, as well as of the province of Judaea; and he became the husband of three queens.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "William Whiston", "work": "Translator's note to Antiquities 20.7.2", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Note 1 to Ant. 20.142 (Whiston 20.7.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is probable that Tacitus may say true, when he informs us that this Felix (who had in all three wives, or queens, as Suetonius in Claudius, sect. 28, assures us) did once marry such a grandchild of Antonius and Cleopatra", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (CCEL text: 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "Ch. 13 (The Voyage to Jerusalem), note 56", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The remarkable contradiction between Josephus (who makes Cumanus governor of Palestine 48-52, Felix being his successor in 52), and Tacitus (who makes Felix governor of Samaria [and probably of Judea], contemporary with Cumanus as governor of Galilee", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Lists the points where Acts agrees with independently known first-century people, offices and places, the Caesarea trial chapters among them, and argues that these show an author well informed about the period." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992 (2nd ed. 2003)", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's narrative, pointing to shared material such as Theudas, Judas the Galilean and the Egyptian prophet. He concedes that the case cannot be proved, and it bears on how independent Acts and Josephus are." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about AD 115 and argues that its author used Josephus's Antiquities among his sources." }, { "author": "Frederick E. Brenk and Filippo Canali De Rossi", "work": "\"The 'Notorious' Felix, Procurator of Judaea, and His Many Wives (Acts 23-24)\", Biblica 82", "year": "2001", "view": "Argue that the sources are confused about Felix's family name and wives, and that 'Antonius' and 'Claudius' may both be correct. They hold that the inscription used to fix his name and career has serious problems, that none of his wives may descend from Cleopatra VII (if one did, she was more likely a great-granddaughter), and that his 'notorious' reputation should be treated with caution." }, { "author": "Roman Deiksler", "work": "\"Żony Feliksa, prokuratora Judei\" (The Wives of Felix, Procurator of Judea), Res Historica 49", "year": "2020", "view": "Re-examines Felix's wives and, against common scholarly scepticism, argues that Tacitus was right to make Drusilla of Mauretania a granddaughter of Cleopatra VII. Treats Agrippa I's daughter as a second, separate wife." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q255778", "label": "Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5309410", "label": "Drusilla of Mauretania (Tacitus's Drusilla)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q298636", "label": "Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319242", "label": "Caesarea Maritima" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯與塔西佗筆下的腓力斯和土西拉", "summary": "約瑟夫斯證實了《使徒行傳》23至25章所預設的官員和家族關係。他指出帕拉斯的兄弟腓力斯在克勞第和尼祿治下任猶太總督；又說希律．亞基帕一世的女兒土西拉離開丈夫，改嫁腓力斯；並指出他的繼任者是波求．非斯都。塔西佗和蘇埃托尼烏斯也證實腓力斯擔任此職。《使徒行傳》以外，沒有任何資料提到保羅受審的事；《使徒行傳》是否獨立於約瑟夫斯，仍有爭議。", "dating": "約瑟夫斯：《猶太戰記》約成書於公元75至79年（通行定年）；《猶太古史》完成於公元93/94年（《猶太古史》20.267）。塔西佗和蘇埃托尼烏斯：公元二世紀初。所述事件：從希律．亞基帕一世去世（公元44年）到非斯都繼任，而繼任的年份仍有爭議。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "約瑟夫斯（《猶太古史》20.137；《猶太戰記》2.247）和塔西佗（《歷史》5.9；《編年史》12.54）的記述在細節上有出入，但都記載帕拉斯的兄弟腓力斯在克勞第治下管治猶太。約瑟夫斯又說，尼祿確認他留任（《猶太戰記》2.252）。《使徒行傳》23:24–24:27把保羅在凱撒利亞的受審，安排在這位總督面前。", "約瑟夫斯說，土西拉是希律．亞基帕一世的女兒，父親去世時她六歲（《猶太古史》19.354）。亞基帕二世把她嫁給埃梅薩的阿齊蘇斯，對方同意受割禮；腓力斯任總督期間，她離開阿齊蘇斯，改嫁腓力斯，約瑟夫斯稱此舉違背祖傳的律法（《猶太古史》20.139–143）。《使徒行傳》24:24同樣把土西拉描述為腓力斯的妻子、一位猶太女子。", "約瑟夫斯記載，尼祿派波求．非斯都接替腓力斯（《猶太古史》20.182；《猶太戰記》2.271只稱他為非斯都），也就是《使徒行傳》24:27所記的繼任。他又說，凱撒利亞的猶太人領袖前往羅馬控告腓力斯，腓力斯卻憑著兄弟帕拉斯的影響力逃過懲罰。", "非基督教資料對腓力斯的描繪相當嚴厲。約瑟夫斯說，他以詭計擒拿強盜以利亞撒，策劃謀殺前任大祭司約拿單，又派兵對付那位埃及先知的追隨者，以及在凱撒利亞鬧事的猶太人（《猶太古史》20.160–178；《猶太戰記》2.253）。塔西佗指責他殘暴好色（《歷史》5.9）。《使徒行傳》中那位指望得到錢財的總督，與這種名聲相符。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "《使徒行傳》以外，沒有任何資料提到保羅、他在腓力斯面前受審、他與腓力斯和土西拉的私下會面，或他兩年的拘禁。這種吻合證實的是官員、他們的家族關係和背景，並不證實《使徒行傳》所敘述的事件。", "這些資料沒有確定準確的日期。腓力斯任期的開始（塔西佗說他曾與庫馬努斯同時在任、管治撒馬利亞，到公元52年已「任職一段時間」），以及非斯都接替他的年份，都有爭議。", "塔西佗筆下的土西拉是安東尼與克麗奧佩脫拉的孫女，並非希律．亞基帕一世那位猶太女兒；所以在土西拉的身分問題上，塔西佗並沒有佐證《使徒行傳》24:24。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍未解決。年代：塔西佗說公元52年以前，腓力斯管治撒馬利亞，同時庫馬努斯管轄加利利；約瑟夫斯則說腓力斯是庫馬努斯的繼任者；非斯都到任的年份也有爭議。答案部分取決於：約瑟夫斯所說曾庇護腓力斯的帕拉斯，在約公元55年被尼祿免職之後（《編年史》13.14），是否仍保有那份影響力；部分取決於《使徒行傳》24:27所說的兩年，是指保羅受拘禁的時間，還是腓力斯的任期。妻子：塔西佗筆下的土西拉是安東尼與克麗奧佩脫拉的後裔，蘇埃托尼烏斯則說腓力斯娶過三位王后。獨立性：有些學者主張路加知道約瑟夫斯的《猶太古史》。若是如此，這些吻合作為獨立佐證的分量便較輕。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行傳》取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "Richard Pervo主張《使徒行傳》的作者知道約瑟夫斯的著作，Steve Mason也持此說，但較為保留；若是如此，這些吻合就不是獨立的佐證。反對此處有所借用的理由是：土西拉的婚事只見於《猶太古史》（公元93/94年），而許多學者把此書的年代定在《使徒行傳》之後；此外，約瑟夫斯特有的細節（阿齊蘇斯；那位塞浦路斯術士——在Niese所刊印的希臘文本中名叫Atomos，在Whiston的英譯本中名叫Simon），《使徒行傳》一項也沒有。" }, { "label": "在腓力斯的仕途和妻室問題上採信塔西佗", "statement": "Ramsay記述，在腓力斯早期任職的問題上，Mommsen採信塔西佗，而非約瑟夫斯。R. Deiksler（2020年）主張，塔西佗說腓力斯有一位妻子是克麗奧佩脫拉的後裔，這一點是對的。兩種看法都不排除腓力斯也娶了希律．亞基帕一世的女兒，因為蘇埃托尼烏斯說他有三位王室出身的妻子。這個問題關乎約瑟夫斯的精確程度，而非《使徒行傳》24:24。" }, { "label": "腓力斯的惡名或許被誇大", "statement": "Brenk與Canali De Rossi（2001年）主張，對腓力斯「臭名昭著」的名聲應審慎看待。編者觀察：塔西佗寫作時對皇室的被釋奴隸毫不掩飾其輕蔑，而約瑟夫斯則是在解釋猶太戰爭如何一步步爆發。因此，兩人筆下的敵意描寫，本身並不能證實《使徒行傳》對一位想得錢財的總督的描繪。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-felix-drusilla" }, { "id": "lystra-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 100, "corpusReferences": [ "CIL III 6786", "MAMA VIII 5", "AE 1888, 89", "EDCS-27800574", "Sterrett, The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (1888), no. 242" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 14:6-21", "Acts 16:1-2", "2 Timothy 3:11" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.timothy" ], "placeIds": [ "place.lystra", "place.derbe", "place.iconium", "place.galatia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "No. 242, p. 142", "url": "https://archive.org/details/papersofamerican03arch/page/142/mode/1up", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Divum Aug(ustum) Col(onia) Iul(ia) Fe-lix Gemina Lustra conse-cravit d(ecreto) d(ecurionum).", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "Itinerary entry for 10 July (Maï to Khatün Serai), p. 141", "url": "https://archive.org/download/papersofamerican03arch/page/n152_w500.jpg", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "p. 15 (itinerary entry for 1 June, at Serpek)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/papersofamerican03arch/page/15/mode/1up", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The site was thought to be that of Derbe, as long as Lystra was supposed to be at Bin Bir Kalesi", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby", "locator": "EDCS-27800574 (CIL 03, 06786; MAMA 08, 00005; AE 1888, 00089; place: Hatunsaray / Katin Serai / Lystra)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/278/27800574.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "Ch. V, Note 2 ('Declension of Lystra'); p. 129 in the 1895 first edition", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.viii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Incidentally we notice that the name of the city is spelt Lustra, not Lystra (like Prymnessos), on coins and inscriptions. That is an indication of Latin tone, and of the desire to make the city name a Latin word.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades gazetteer of ancient places", "locator": "Place 648699 (Lystra/Col. Iulia Felix Gemina)", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/648699/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata", "locator": "Q535982 (Lystra)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q535982.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Historical Geography of Asia Minor", "year": "1890", "view": "Credits Sterrett's inscription with proving Leake's earlier identification of Lystra near Khatün Serai." }, { "author": "Barbara Levick", "work": "Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor", "year": "1967", "view": "Treats Lystra as one of the Augustan veteran colonies of southern Galatia and draws on its inscriptions and coins to reconstruct that colonial programme." }, { "author": "Stephen Mitchell", "work": "Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor", "year": "1993", "view": "Places Lystra within the Augustan colonisation and Roman organisation of southern Galatia and Lycaonia." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues that many incidental local details in Acts, including the Lycaonian setting of Acts 14, fit first-century conditions and support the book's historical value." }, { "author": "Cilliers Breytenbach", "work": "Paulus und Barnabas in der Provinz Galatien", "year": "1996", "view": "Reads Acts 13-14 against the epigraphy and geography of the Roman province of Galatia, including Lystra. Argues that the churches Paul addressed as Galatian lay in this southern region." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century. On this view, the author's knowledge of local conditions does not imply eyewitness or early composition." }, { "author": "H. Bahar, T. Çay, Ö. Koçak and F. Işcan", "work": "A Plan for Archaeological Excavation of Lystra (Zoldura Höyük), CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium", "year": "2005", "view": "Report surveys since 1994 that found material from the Chalcolithic to the Roman period on the Zoldura mound north of Hatunsaray. State that Sterrett's inscription is in the Konya Archaeological Museum." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "648699", "label": "Lystra/Col. Iulia Felix Gemina" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q535982", "label": "Lystra (historic settlement in Konya, Turkey)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "16230", "label": "TM Geo 16230 (Lystra), place id as cross-referenced by Pleiades; not a text id" } ], "title": "為路司得定位的拉丁文奉獻銘文", "summary": "這座刻有拉丁文的基座，是把《使徒行傳》14章和16章中那座呂高尼城鎮路司得定位於Hatunsaray附近Zoldera土丘的主要證據。基座由殖民地「Iulia Felix Gemina Lustra」獻給神化的奧古斯都，顯示路司得在公元14年以後的某個時候是羅馬殖民地。J. R. S. Sterrett於1885年7月抄錄了這段銘文。它沒有提到保羅，也不能證實《使徒行傳》所記發生在那裡的任何事件。", "dating": "無法精確定年。由於奧古斯都被稱為divus，銘文晚於公元14年；所查閱的目錄記錄都沒有給出日期，dateTo 100只是慣用的上限。Sterrett於1885年7月抄錄，並於1888年發表。", "currentLocation": "據報藏於土耳其科尼亞考古博物館（Bahar et al. 2005，引用MAMA VIII）；尚未確認有任何博物館目錄記錄。", "establishes": [ "1885年7月，J. R. S. Sterrett在Khatün Serai（今Hatunsaray）以北約十五分鐘路程的Zoldera土丘上，抄錄了一座四面的大型基座。基座上刻有「Colonia Iulia Felix Gemina Lustra」所立的拉丁文奉獻銘文（Sterrett第242號；CIL III 6786）。", "一件如此規模、而且就在土丘上發現的城市奉獻銘文，是把路司得定位於此的主要證據；此地位於科尼亞（古代的以哥念）西南偏南的呂高尼平原。Ramsay在《小亞細亞歷史地理》（1890年）中，認為是Sterrett找到了證據，證明Leake早先的認定正確。", "立這段銘文時，路司得是羅馬殖民地，其市議會議員（decurions）公開尊崇神化的奧古斯都。因此，這段銘文的年代在公元14年以後。", "這個位置與《使徒行傳》相符：《使徒行傳》把路司得和特庇並列為呂高尼的城市，又把它與鄰近的以哥念連在一起（《使徒行傳》14:6、14:19–21；16:1–2）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "銘文沒有提到任何基督徒。它不能證實那次醫治、眾人稱巴拿巴和保羅為宙斯和希耳米，或保羅被石頭打的事（《使徒行傳》14:8–20）。", "銘文無法精確定年。它不能顯示這個殖民地何時建立，也不能顯示保羅到訪時這座城鎮是什麼樣子。", "《使徒行傳》從未稱路司得為殖民地，所以這塊石碑提供的是背景，而不是證實《使徒行傳》中某一具體陳述。單憑地理正確，並不能說明作者是目擊者，也不能說明《使徒行傳》寫於何時。" ], "debate": "1885年以前，路司得曾被定在別處；Sterrett提到，此前人們認為它位於Bin Bir Kalesi。Ramsay（1890年）把正確的認定歸功於Leake，把證實之功歸於Sterrett；Pleiades地名辭典和各種銘文目錄都採用這個認定。1994年以來的調查報告，在土丘上發現從銅石並用時代到羅馬時期的遺物（Bahar et al. 2005），雖然單獨一塊石碑原則上可能曾被搬動。尚待解決的是如何詮釋這一點。有人把《使徒行傳》對呂高尼背景的準確描寫，視為消息靈通、年代較早之記述的標誌。另一些人則指出，路司得存在了好幾個世紀，而準確的地方色彩並不能證實《使徒行傳》所敘述的那段情節。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "較早的遺址提議", "statement": "在Sterrett的發現之前，路司得曾被定在別處；Sterrett提到，此前人們認為它位於Bin Bir Kalesi。現代地名辭典和銘文目錄（Pleiades、EDCS）都採用Zoldera的認定；這個認定主要依據這件奉獻銘文及其發現地點，並有土丘上的調查發現作為佐證。" }, { "label": "《使徒行傳》晚出說的讀法", "statement": "Richard Pervo等人把《使徒行傳》定於二世紀初，並把其中許多情節讀作文學創作；因此，準確的地方色彩顯示的是作者熟悉該地區，而非他是目擊者。詮釋者也把宙斯與希耳米一幕，與奧維德筆下朱庇特和墨丘利造訪弗呂家的故事（《變形記》第8卷）相比較；這種相似或被讀作文學上的模仿，或被讀作《使徒行傳》中群眾也熟知的地方傳說。" }, { "label": "歷史可靠性的讀法", "statement": "Ramsay、Hemer等人主張，《使徒行傳》對呂高尼地理和政治的處理十分精確，這表示其記述消息靈通，而且很可能年代較早。他們把這個殖民地位置的確認，視為累積論證的一部分。然而，這塊石碑本身只涉及背景。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-lystra-inscription" }, { "id": "josephus-ananias", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Antiquities)", "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 23:2-5", "Acts 24:1", "Acts 9:10-19", "Acts 22:12-16", "Acts 5:1-11" ], "personIds": [ "person.ananias-high-priest", "person.paul", "person.felix", "person.tertullus", "person.claudius", "person.agrippa", "person.josephus", "person.ananias" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.caesarea", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.103 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But now Herod, king of Chalcis, removed Joseph, the son of Camydus, from the high priesthood, and made Ananias, the son of Nebedeu, his successor.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.131 (Whiston 20.6.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but still he sent away Ananias the high priest, and Ananus the commander [of the temple], in bonds to Rome, to give an account of what they had done to Claudius Caesar.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.162 (Whiston 20.8.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Felix also bore an ill-will to Jonathan, the high priest, because he frequently gave him admonitions about governing the Jewish affairs better than he did", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.179 (Whiston 20.8.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time king Agrippa gave the high priesthood to Ismael, who was the son of Fabi.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.205 (Whiston 20.9.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "had obtained the favor and esteem of the citizens in a signal manner; for he was a great hoarder up of money: he therefore cultivated the friendship of Albinus, and of the high priest [Jesus], by making them presents", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.206 (Whiston 20.9.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he also had servants who were very wicked, who joined themselves to the boldest sort of the people, and went to the thrashing-floors, and took away the tithes that belonged to the priests by violence, and did not refrain from beating such as would not give these tithes to them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "William Whiston", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews, translator's note to 20.9.2", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Whiston's note on Ant. 20.205 (Whiston 20.9.2 n. 1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This Ananias was not the son of Nebedeus, as I take it, but he who was called Annas or Ananus the elder", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.213 (Whiston 20.9.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But Ananias was too hard for the rest, by his riches, which enabled him to gain those that were most ready to receive.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.243 (Whiston 2.12.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=12:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "both Jonathan and Ananias, the high priests", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.426 (Whiston 2.17.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=17:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The others then set fire to the house of Ananias the high priest, and to the palaces of Agrippa and Bernice", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.441 (Whiston 2.17.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=17:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But on the next day the high priest was caught where he had concealed himself in an aqueduct; he was slain, together with Hezekiah his brother, by the robbers", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "James C. VanderKam", "work": "From Joshua to Caiaphas: High Priests after the Exile", "year": "2004", "view": "Gathers and assesses the surviving evidence for each high priest of the Second Temple period down to about AD 70, including Ananias son of Nedebaeus." }, { "author": "Martin Goodman", "work": "The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt against Rome, A.D. 66-70", "year": "1987", "view": "Argues that the Rome-backed ruling class of Judaea, including the high-priestly families, lacked popular legitimacy and that its rivalries helped bring on the revolt of AD 66." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992 (2nd ed. 2003)", "view": "Introduces Josephus for New Testament readers and argues that the author of Luke-Acts probably knew Josephus's writings, which bears on whether their agreements are independent." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century and argues that its author drew on Josephus." }, { "author": "F. F. Bruce", "work": "The Book of the Acts (New International Commentary on the New Testament, rev. ed.)", "year": "1988", "view": "Identifies the high priest of Acts 23:2 with Ananias son of Nedebaeus and uses Josephus's account of his greed and violent death as background to the scene." }, { "author": "Craig S. Keener", "work": "Acts: An Exegetical Commentary, vol. 3 (15:1-23:35)", "year": "2014", "view": "Sets Acts 23:1-5 against Josephus's evidence for Ananias and surveys the explanations proposed for Paul's statement that he did not know Ananias was high priest." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q485854", "label": "Ananias ben Nedebaios" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯論尼底拜之子大祭司亞拿尼亞", "summary": "約瑟夫斯證實，一位名叫亞拿尼亞、尼底拜之子的大祭司約於公元47/48年獲委任，此後一直富有而有權勢，曾以禮物討好總督阿爾比努斯，並於公元66年被叛軍殺害。這與《使徒行傳》所記那位命人打保羅、又在腓力斯面前控告他的大祭司的名字和職位相符（《使徒行傳》23:2–5；24:1）。約瑟夫斯從未提到保羅，也沒有說明亞拿尼亞的任期何時結束。", "dating": "《猶太戰記》約成書於公元75至79年（通行定年）；《猶太古史》完成於公元93/94年（《猶太古史》20.267）；所述事件約從公元47年延續到66年。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "約瑟夫斯記載了一位大祭司，即尼底拜之子亞拿尼亞，約於公元47/48年由卡爾基斯的希律委任（《猶太古史》20.103）。約公元52年，敘利亞總督夸德拉圖斯把他送到克勞第那裡；據《猶太古史》，他是被綑綁押送的（《猶太古史》20.131；《猶太戰記》2.243）。《使徒行傳》稱約公元57年保羅受審時的大祭司為亞拿尼亞（《使徒行傳》23:2；24:1）。", "約瑟夫斯把亞拿尼亞描寫為富有而人脈廣闊：他受市民敬重，是個「囤積錢財的人」，又以禮物籠絡總督阿爾比努斯；他的僕人則強奪眾祭司應得的十分之一，毆打拒絕交出的人（《猶太古史》20.205–207、213）。其他大祭司也這樣做（《猶太古史》20.207）。《使徒行傳》對一位命人打囚犯的大祭司的簡短描寫，與此一致。", "約瑟夫斯記載，公元66年叛軍焚燒了亞拿尼亞的房子，隨後把他和他的兄弟希西家一同殺害（《猶太戰記》2.426、441）。因此，一位叫這個名字的大祭司，從四十年代末直到起義，都屬於耶路撒冷的領導層。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "約瑟夫斯沒有提到保羅、公會的審問、打他的命令，或在腓力斯面前的案件。《使徒行傳》23至24章的場景本身沒有得到佐證。", "約瑟夫斯沒有說明亞拿尼亞的任期何時結束。《使徒行傳》稱他在約公元57年時是大祭司；約瑟夫斯既沒有證實，也沒有否定這一點，而且他也把這個頭銜用於已不在任的人（《猶太古史》20.162的約拿單；《猶太古史》20.205中阿爾比努斯任內的亞拿尼亞本人）。", "《使徒行傳》沒有敘述亞拿尼亞在公元66年被殺。把《使徒行傳》23:3中保羅的斥責讀作已應驗的預言，是一種詮釋，而非歷史證據。", "約瑟夫斯的證據只涉及這位大祭司，而不涉及大馬士革的亞拿尼亞（《使徒行傳》9:10–19；22:12–16）或撒非喇的丈夫（《使徒行傳》5:1–11）。" ], "debate": "約瑟夫斯從未說明亞拿尼亞的任期何時結束。約拿單曾於公元36至37年在任，約瑟夫斯記述他在腓力斯任內被謀殺時，仍稱他為「大祭司」（《猶太古史》20.162）；約瑟夫斯又在後文記載以實瑪利獲委任（《猶太古史》20.179）。因此，單憑約瑟夫斯，亞拿尼亞約於公元57年在任只是一項推論；《使徒行傳》則明言此事。保羅說，他不知道亞拿尼亞是大祭司（《使徒行傳》23:5）。Albert Barnes在十九世紀為這節經文所寫的註釋，逐一檢視了幾種解釋：反語、為倉促出言而道歉、久別之後不熟悉情況，以及亞拿尼亞沒有以大祭司的身分就座或穿著，最後傾向認為當時這職位懸空。認為路加知道約瑟夫斯著作的學者，會追問兩份記載是否各自獨立而吻合。約瑟夫斯的敵意描寫，也反映他自己的貴族立場和辯護意圖。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "公元57年時亞拿尼亞已不在任", "statement": "約瑟夫斯沒有說明亞拿尼亞的任期何時結束。一些十九世紀的註釋者，例如Albert Barnes對《使徒行傳》23:5的註釋，認為當時這職位懸空，亞拿尼亞只是出於禮遇而主持，這可以解釋保羅的回答。約瑟夫斯的沉默並不證明有空缺期，而他在《猶太古史》20.162稱為「大祭司」的約拿單，只在公元36至37年在任（《猶太古史》18.95、123）。" }, { "label": "路加取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "Richard Pervo主張《使徒行傳》的作者知道約瑟夫斯的著作，Steve Mason也持此說，但較為保留。若是如此，《使徒行傳》可能是從約瑟夫斯那裡取得亞拿尼亞的名字和職位，而不是出於獨立的認識。另一些人則把《使徒行傳》定在《猶太古史》（公元93/94年）之前，或認為此處看不出借用的跡象，因為《使徒行傳》23章的審問在約瑟夫斯的著作中沒有對應記載。" }, { "label": "編撰而成的場景", "statement": "一些批判學派的註釋者把《使徒行傳》23:1–10視為路加圍繞自己的主題編撰的場景，例如保羅對律法的尊重，以及法利賽人與撒都該人在復活問題上的爭論。按這種讀法，名字和職位正確，顯示路加熟悉那個時期，卻不能證實審問確實如所述那樣發生。" }, { "label": "Whiston對《猶太古史》20.205的人物認定", "statement": "Whiston在其1737年譯本的一則註釋中，把《猶太古史》20.205–213中那位富有的「大祭司亞拿尼亞」認定為老亞那。約瑟夫斯的原文在那裡稱他為亞拿尼亞，Whiston自己的譯文也是這樣印的；而約瑟夫斯對亞那通常採用的寫法是亞拿努。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-ananias" }, { "id": "josephus-festus", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)", "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 24:27-26:32", "Acts 24:10", "Acts 21:18", "Galatians 1:19" ], "personIds": [ "person.festus", "person.felix", "person.agrippa", "person.nero", "person.josephus", "person.paul", "person.james" ], "placeIds": [ "place.judea", "place.caesarea", "place.jerusalem", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.185-188 (Whiston 20.8.10)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "So Festus sent forces, both horsemen and footmen, to fall upon those that had been seduced by a certain impostor, who promised them deliverance and freedom from the miseries they were under, if they would but follow him as far as the wilderness.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.189-196 (Whiston 20.8.11)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=11", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "At these doings both king Agrippa, and principally Festus the procurator, were much displeased; and Festus ordered them to pull the wall down again: but the Jews petitioned him to give them leave to send an embassage about this matter to Nero", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.197 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "AND now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.200 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the sanhedrim of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.271-272 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=14:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country. So he caught the greatest part of the robbers, and destroyed a great many of them. But then Albinus, who succeeded Festus, did not execute his office", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.300 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=6:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Jesus, the son of Ananus, a plebeian and a husbandman, who, four years before the war began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and prosperity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one to make tabernacles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.305 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=6:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And when Albinus (for he was then our procurator) asked him, Who he was? and whence he came? and why he uttered such words?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 13.14", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 13.23", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=23", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the proved innocence of Pallas did not please men so much, as his arrogance offended them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 14.65", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=14:chapter=65", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero was believed to have destroyed by poison two of his most powerful freedmen, Doryphorus, on the pretext of his having opposed the marriage with Poppæa, Pallas for still keeping his boundless wealth by a prolonged old age.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was sent by Nero to be Felix's successor. Under him Paul, having made his defense, was sent bound to Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.23.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the emperor, when he learned of the death of Festus, sent Albinus to be procurator of Judea.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 468", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Valesius and Heinichen proceed on the erroneous assumption that Festus succeeded Felix in the second year of Nero", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.22", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.1, note 469", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The widest possible margin for his accession is from 59–61.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I, vol. 2 (English translation of the second German edition)", "year": "1890", "view": "Dates Festus AD 60-62. Records the case for recalling Felix early in Nero's reign (Jerome's Chronicle; Pallas's fall in 55) and answers that Josephus puts most of Felix's acts under Nero and that Pallas was acquitted before the end of 55." }, { "author": "Roger Pearse and others (trans.)", "work": "Jerome, Chronicle (Latin version of Eusebius's Chronicle)", "year": "2005", "view": "Enters Festus's succession to Felix under Nero's second year, which the translator's column equates with AD 56." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Tests Acts against Roman law and administration, including a lecture on Paul before Felix and Festus, and judges the trial narratives consistent with Roman provincial practice of the period." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Examines literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence and argues that Acts is a coherent and consistent product of its first-century Hellenistic setting." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's narrative. Overlaps between Acts and Josephus may therefore reflect Luke's reading rather than independent knowledge." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about AD 115 and argues that its author knew Josephus's writings." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯論總督波求．非斯都", "summary": "約瑟夫斯指出，波求．非斯都由尼祿委派，在猶太接替腓力斯。他記述非斯都在一場關於聖殿圍牆的爭端中站在亞基帕二世王一邊，又記載非斯都死於任上，由阿爾比努斯接任。這與《使徒行傳》24:27–26:32中的繼任次序和人物相符。約瑟夫斯從未提到保羅，也沒有給出年份。非斯都到任的時間通常定在約公元59至60年，這是一項重建。", "dating": "《猶太戰記》通常定於約公元75至79年；《猶太古史》完成於公元93/94年（《猶太古史》20.267）；所述事件約在公元59至62年", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "約瑟夫斯指出，波求．非斯都是尼祿派往猶太接替腓力斯的總督（《猶太古史》20.182；《猶太戰記》2.271）。《使徒行傳》24:27給出相同的全名和相同的繼任次序。", "約瑟夫斯把非斯都和亞基帕二世王放在耶路撒冷事務的同一陣線上。兩人都反對一道圍牆：那道牆擋住了王望進聖殿的視線，也擋住了羅馬守衛從聖殿西面柱廊望去的視線。非斯都下令拆毀圍牆，卻容許一個猶太使團向尼祿上訴（《猶太古史》20.189–196）。《使徒行傳》25:13–26:32同樣記載非斯都就一宗猶太宗教爭議徵詢亞基帕的意見。", "非斯都死於任上。尼祿得知後委派阿爾比努斯接任；在這段空檔期間，大祭司亞拿努使雅各——「被稱為基督的耶穌的兄弟」——和其他一些人被判以石頭打死（《猶太古史》20.197–203）。多數人認為他就是《使徒行傳》21:18和《加拉太書》1:19中的雅各；這段文字的真確性獲廣泛接受，但並非人人接受。", "約瑟夫斯把非斯都描繪為一位在動盪行省中積極作為的總督。非斯都曾派騎兵和步兵對付一個曠野騙子的追隨者（《猶太古史》20.185–188）；《猶太戰記》則說他捉拿了大部分強盜，與他的繼任者阿爾比努斯不同（《猶太戰記》2.271–272）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "約瑟夫斯從未提到保羅。在非斯都面前的審訊、向凱撒上訴，以及面見亞基帕和百妮基（《使徒行傳》25:1–26:32），都只以《使徒行傳》為依據。", "約瑟夫斯沒有給出非斯都到任的年份，也沒有說明他任期多長。通常採用的日期（約公元59至60年到任，約公元62年去世）都是重建的結果。較早的到任年份，約公元55至56年，所依據的是一條四世紀的編年記錄（耶柔米所譯的優西比烏《年代記》拉丁文版本，列在尼祿在位第二年之下），其根據不明；另一項依據，是從帕拉斯於55年失去職位所作的論證。", "在總督的名字、他在繼任次序中的位置以及他與亞基帕的往來上彼此吻合，顯示《使徒行傳》與這個政治背景相符。這並不能證明《使徒行傳》所敘述的講論或事件。如果路加使用過約瑟夫斯的著作，這些吻合就不能算作獨立的證實。", "優西比烏的相關記載（《教會史》2.22.1；2.23.21）取材自《使徒行傳》和他所引用的約瑟夫斯。這些記載只是重述這些見證，而不是增添一個獨立的見證。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍未解決。年代：多數學者把非斯都到任定在約公元59至60年；McGiffert（1890年）最寬只容許59至61年，Schürer（1890年）則定為60年。他們引用保羅提到腓力斯審理這民族的案件已有多年的話（《使徒行傳》24:10），以及約瑟夫斯置於尼祿在位期間的腓力斯時期事件（《猶太古史》20.160–181）。終止年份則依據《猶太戰記》6.300–305：書中記載亞拿努的兒子耶穌被帶到阿爾比努斯面前時，正是阿爾比努斯在任；這人的呼喊始於戰爭爆發前四年的住棚節。少數人主張公元55至56年。他們引用耶柔米所譯的優西比烏《年代記》，並主張約瑟夫斯所說當時最受尼祿尊崇、救了腓力斯的帕拉斯（《猶太古史》20.182），在55年已失去職位（塔西佗《編年史》13.14）。另一些人回應說，帕拉斯失去職位後仍保有地位：他在55年稍後被控密謀而獲判無罪（《編年史》13.23），並一直活到62年（《編年史》14.65）。依賴關係：有人主張路加使用過約瑟夫斯的著作；另一些人則認為《使徒行傳》獨立於約瑟夫斯。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "早期年代說", "statement": "非斯都約於公元55至56年到任。耶柔米所譯的優西比烏《年代記》拉丁文版本，把總督的更替列在尼祿在位第二年；而約瑟夫斯說帕拉斯救了腓力斯，這句話被讀作要求年代早於帕拉斯在55年失去職位之時。編者Valesius和Heinichen都假定這個年代；Schürer（1890年）則指出，後來主張早在尼祿在位初期就召回腓力斯的學者中，包括Kellner和Weber。按這種看法，保羅在凱撒利亞的拘禁和他前往羅馬的航程，都要提前好幾年。" }, { "label": "路加取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "如果《使徒行傳》寫於《猶太古史》（公元93/94年）之後，而且作者使用過約瑟夫斯的著作，那麼共同的名字、繼任次序以及與亞基帕的關聯，所顯示的就是路加使用了某項資料來源，而不是獨立的證實。批評這種看法的人指出，《使徒行傳》中有關非斯都的場景有許多內容是約瑟夫斯沒有的，而約瑟夫斯自己記載的非斯都事件——匕首黨（sicarii）、曠野中的騙子和聖殿圍牆——在《使徒行傳》中一件也沒有。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-festus" }, { "id": "josephus-egyptian", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)", "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 21:37-39", "Acts 22:1-21", "Acts 23:24-26" ], "personIds": [ "person.josephus", "person.felix", "person.paul", "person.lysias" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.judea", "place.mount-of-olives" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.261-262 (Whiston 2.13.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "got together thirty thousand men that were deluded by him; these he led round about from the wilderness to the mount which was called the Mount of Olives, and was ready to break into Jerusalem by force from that place", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.263 (Whiston 2.13.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the Egyptian ran away, with a few others, while the greatest part of those that were with him were either destroyed or taken alive", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.254 (Whiston 2.13.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "there sprang up another sort of robbers in Jerusalem, which were called Sicarii, who slew men in the day time, and in the midst of the city", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.169 (Whiston 20.8.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the Mount of Olives, as it was called, which lay over against the city", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.171-172 (Whiston 20.8.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He also slew four hundred of them, and took two hundred alive. But the Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight, but did not appear any more.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Josephus relates these events in the second book of his History. But it is worth while comparing the account of the Egyptian given here with that contained in the Acts of the Apostles.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 466 (the three figures)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the Egyptian escaped with a small number (i.e. small in comparison with the thirty thousand), who may well have been the four thousand mentioned by the author of the Acts", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 466 (on numerals)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "numbers are so treacherous in transcription that the difference may really have been originally less than it is. Whenever the main elements of two accounts are in substantial agreement, little stress can be laid upon a difference in figures.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 468", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Josephus in both of his accounts relates the uproar among events which he expressly assigns to Nero’s reign", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's writings. On Acts 21:38 judges the link of the Egyptian with the sicarii too close to the War's sequence to be coincidence." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44276", "label": "The Jewish War" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q205976", "label": "Mount of Olives" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q282586", "label": "Sicarii" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯論《使徒行傳》21:38中的埃及先知", "summary": "約瑟夫斯兩次描述一位沒有記下名字的埃及先知：腓力斯管治猶太期間，他帶領一群追隨者到橄欖山，在腓力斯的軍隊進攻時逃脫。在《使徒行傳》21:38，羅馬千夫長問保羅是不是那個人。約瑟夫斯證實的是這個問題所預設的事件，而不是保羅被捕本身；而且數字各不相同：《猶太戰記》說約有30,000名追隨者，《猶太古史》說400人被殺、200人被俘，《使徒行傳》則說4,000人。", "dating": "事件發生於公元50年代中期，在腓力斯任內、尼祿即位（54年）之後；記載於《猶太戰記》（通常定於約公元75至79年）和《猶太古史》（完成於公元93/94年，《猶太古史》20.267）", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "史家約瑟夫斯並非基督徒，他兩次記載：腓力斯管治猶太期間，一個自稱先知、只被稱為「那埃及人」的人，帶領一群追隨者到橄欖山，被腓力斯的軍隊擊潰後逃脫（《猶太戰記》2.261–263；《猶太古史》20.169–172）。", "《使徒行傳》21:38中千夫長提問的前提與約瑟夫斯相符：同一位總督（《使徒行傳》23:24–26）、同一個稱號、一場與曠野有關的運動（雖然方向不同，《猶太戰記》2.262），以及一個逃脫後再沒有出現的首領（《猶太古史》20.172）。", "《使徒行傳》21:38使用了拉丁借詞sicarii，也就是約瑟夫斯用來稱呼他所記述在腓力斯任內出沒於耶路撒冷的匕首黨的詞（《猶太戰記》2.254–257）。因此，《使徒行傳》的用語符合約瑟夫斯所描述的50年代（關於依賴關係，見下文）。", "約瑟夫斯自己的記述就難以調和：《猶太戰記》說約有30,000名追隨者，並說跟隨那埃及人的人大多被殺或被俘；《猶太古史》則說400人被殺、200人被俘。《使徒行傳》的4,000人是第三個數字，並不是與某個確定數字相衝突。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能佐證保羅被捕、他與千夫長的對話，或隨後的講論（《使徒行傳》22:1–21）；它證實的是這個問題所預設的較早事件。", "它不能確定哪個數字正確，也不能確定路加是知道約瑟夫斯的著作、依靠一般傳聞，還是有自己的資料來源。約瑟夫斯的兩段記述是一個見證，而不是兩個。", "約瑟夫斯從未把那埃及人與sicarii聯繫起來。他把匕首黨、曠野中的先知和那埃及人描述為各自獨立的亂事（《猶太戰記》2.254–263），所以這個聯繫只見於《使徒行傳》。", "各記述在方向上有差異：約瑟夫斯說那埃及人的追隨者是從曠野（《猶太戰記》）或從城裡（《猶太古史》）來到橄欖山，而《使徒行傳》21:38說的是被領出去、進入曠野的人。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍未解決。數字方面，《猶太戰記》的30,000人可能是個約數，或是誇大了的人群估計。McGiffert（1890年）引用Tholuck，則另有讀法：30,000人是散去的烏合之眾，600人是被腓力斯殺死或俘虜的強盜，4,000人是跟隨那埃及人逃脫的少數人；他並補充說，數字很容易抄錯。依賴關係方面，Steve Mason主張路加知道約瑟夫斯的著作，因為把那埃及人與《猶太戰記》緊接在他之前描述的sicarii連在一起，與《猶太戰記》的次序太過接近，不像是巧合。另一些人回應說，《使徒行傳》的4,000人、行進的方向和用語，與約瑟夫斯的兩段記述都不相符，這暗示《使徒行傳》對一場近期而惡名昭彰的起事有獨立的認識。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行傳》取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "路加知道約瑟夫斯的著作，並把《猶太戰記》2.254–263中緊接在那埃及人之前描述的sicarii，附加到那埃及人的運動上。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》寫於《猶太戰記》之後；如果路加使用的是《猶太古史》，則寫於公元93/94年之後。" }, { "label": "對這場起事的獨立記憶", "statement": "路加或他的資料來源，可能在沒有讀過約瑟夫斯的情況下，就把一場近期而惡名昭彰的起事與同一時期的匕首黨聯繫起來。《使徒行傳》中的數字、行進方向和措辭，都不依循約瑟夫斯的任何一段記述，這指向另有所知，而不是抄襲。" }, { "label": "調和各數字", "statement": "這三個數字計算的是不同的群體：散去的30,000名群眾、約600名被殺或被俘的人，以及跟隨首領逃脫的4,000人。McGiffert（1890年）引用Tholuck提出這個看法，同時承認數字很容易抄錯。這需要把《猶太戰記》所說他與少數幾個人一同逃脫，理解為相對於30,000人而言的少數。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-egyptian" }, { "id": "josephus-famine", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 93, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 12:25", "Acts 12:20-23", "Acts 5:36-37", "Galatians 2:1-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.agabus", "person.barnabas", "person.paul", "person.herod-agrippa-i" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.judea", "place.antioch", "place.alexandria", "place.cyprus", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.51-53 (Whiston 20.2.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=2:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.101 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under these procurators that great famine happened in Judea, in which queen Helena bought corn in Egypt at a great expense, and distributed it to those that were in want, as I have related already.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.102 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the sons of Judas of Galilee were now slain; I mean of that Judas who caused the people to revolt, when Cyrenius came to take an account of the estates of the Jews", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.103-104 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And now it was that Cumanus came as successor to Tiberius Alexander; as also that Herod, brother of Agrippa the great king, departed this life, in the eighth year of the reign of Claudius Caesar.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.17 (Whiston 20.2.1)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time it was that Helena, queen of Adiabene, and her son Izates, changed their course of life, and embraced the Jewish customs", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.97 (Whiston 20.5.1)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of Judea, that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 3.320 (Whiston 3.15.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=3:whiston%20chapter=15:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a little before the beginning of this war, when Claudius was emperor of the Romans, and Ismael was our high priest, and when so great a famine", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.179 (Whiston 20.8.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time king Agrippa gave the high priesthood to Ismael, who was the son of Fabi.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "The Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "locator": "Claud. 18.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "When there was a scarcity of grain because of long-continued droughts, he was once stopped in the middle of the Forum by a mob and so pelted with abuse and at the same time with pieces of bread", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 12.43", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=43", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Scanty crops too, and consequent famine were regarded as a token of calamity.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 12.41", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=41", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the fifth consulship of Tiberius Claudius with Sextius Cornelius Orfitus for his colleague", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1914–1927", "locator": "Dio 60.10.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Claudius was now consul with Gaius Largus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1914–1927", "locator": "Dio 60.11.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of providing an abundant food-supply, not only for that particular crisis but for all future time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.8.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under him the world was visited with a famine, which writers that are entire strangers to our religion have recorded in their histories.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.11.3-2.12.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Besides this he also makes mention of the famine, which took place in the reign of Claudius, in the following words.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Orosius", "work": "Historiae adversus paganos", "locator": "Hist. 7.6.12", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (Schürer's verdict)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke’s brief statement about the famine is declared by Dr. Schürer to be unhistorical, improbable, and uncorroborated by other evidence.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (date of the famine)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The great famine in Palestine occurred probably in A.D. 46.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (Galatians and the relief visit)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But we are not reduced to this single account of the mission to Jerusalem. Paul, in writing to the Galatians, also mentions it", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "view": "Dates the Palestinian famine probably to AD 46 and reads Acts as claiming dearth across the Roman world in different years of Claudius's reign. Treats Orosius's date as one year too early, placing the famine's onset in 45. Reads Acts 12 as a digression between the sending and the delivery of the relief, and identifies the relief visit with Galatians 2:1-10." }, { "author": "Kenneth S. Gapp", "work": "The Universal Famine under Claudius (Harvard Theological Review 28)", "year": "1935", "view": "Uses Egyptian papyri pointing to a failed wheat harvest c. AD 45-46, after a very high Nile, to argue that the universal famine cannot be explained as a mere sequence of local famines; dates the Judean famine to AD 46 or 47 under Tiberius Alexander." }, { "author": "Joachim Jeremias", "work": "Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus (ET)", "year": "1969", "view": "Dates the Judean famine's height to AD 47-48, aggravated by a sabbatical year." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer (rev. Geza Vermes and Fergus Millar)", "work": "The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), vol. 1", "year": "1973", "view": "Treats the view that a world-wide famine occurred under Claudius as improbable." }, { "author": "Bruce W. Winter", "work": "Secular and Christian Responses to Corinthian Famines (Tyndale Bulletin 40)", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues the Claudian dearth was widespread though not felt everywhere at once, citing repeated grain shortages at Corinth." }, { "author": "Peter Garnsey", "work": "Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis", "year": "1988", "view": "Distinguishes frequent, usually local food shortages from rarer true famines. This is a caution against reading ancient famine reports as a single empire-wide catastrophe." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's Antiquities. On that view, parallels such as the Theudas and Judas notices beside the famine report would be literary dependence rather than independent corroboration." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2655769", "label": "Helena of Adiabene" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3047056", "label": "Izates bar Monobaz" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q459841", "label": "Cuspius Fadus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q361357", "label": "Tiberius Julius Alexander" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯論克勞第在位時猶太的饑荒", "summary": "約於公元93/94年寫作的猶太史家約瑟夫斯記載，克勞第在位時，耶路撒冷和猶太發生嚴重饑荒，時值法杜斯任內，或按Niese所刊印的希臘文本，是其繼任者提庇留．亞歷山大任內（約公元44至48年）。阿迪亞本的海倫娜王后購買糧食，緩解了饑荒。這與《使徒行傳》所記克勞第在位時的饑荒以及猶太的匱乏相符。但約瑟夫斯從未提到基督徒、亞迦布、巴拿巴或掃羅，也沒有任何資料記載一場遍及整個羅馬世界的單一饑荒。", "dating": "《猶太古史》完成於公元93/94年（《猶太古史》20.267）。書中所記的饑荒發生於庫斯庇烏斯．法杜斯或提庇留．亞歷山大任內，約公元44至48年；學者提出的饑荒高峰年份，從公元46年到47/48年不等。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "約瑟夫斯是猶太史家，不是基督徒。他記載克勞第在位時，耶路撒冷和猶太發生嚴重饑荒，許多人死亡（《猶太古史》20.51、20.101），時值法杜斯任內，或按Niese所刊印的希臘文本，是其繼任者提庇留．亞歷山大任內（約公元44至48年）。大約在卡爾基斯的希律去世之時，即克勞第在位第八年，庫馬努斯接替了提庇留．亞歷山大（《猶太古史》20.103–104）。", "對耶路撒冷的援助來自猶太以外。已接受猶太習俗的阿迪亞本的海倫娜（《猶太古史》20.17），派人在亞歷山大購買糧食，在塞浦路斯島購買乾無花果。她的兒子伊札特斯則把錢送給耶路撒冷的領袖（《猶太古史》20.51–53）。所以，這次饑荒中外地對耶路撒冷的賑濟，在《使徒行傳》以外也有記載。", "羅馬作家記載，克勞第在位時羅馬一再出現糧食短缺。狄奧在記述公元42年的部分提到一場嚴重饑荒（狄奧60.10.1、60.11.1）。公元51年，經過幾次歉收，羅馬的存糧只夠十五天，一群人在廣場上圍堵皇帝（塔西佗《編年史》12.41、12.43；參蘇埃托尼烏斯《克勞第傳》18.2）。", "《使徒行傳》把一場饑荒定在克勞第在位期間，並記載賑濟被送往猶太（《使徒行傳》11:28–30）。在位時期和地區兩點上，這都與約瑟夫斯一致。《使徒行傳》沒有給出年份，而它把此事置於希律．亞基帕一世去世（公元44年；《使徒行傳》12:20–23）前後，與約瑟夫斯的約44至48年只是大致相符；Ramsay把《使徒行傳》12章讀作插敘。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "約瑟夫斯完全沒有提到基督徒、亞迦布的預言、安提阿的捐獻，或巴拿巴和掃羅的行程（《使徒行傳》11:30；12:25）。這些細節只以《使徒行傳》為依據。把饑荒和在位時期寫對，本身並不能證實那次探訪。", "沒有任何資料描述一場同時遍及羅馬世界的饑荒。有記載的糧荒分布在不同的年份和地點（羅馬：42年和51年；埃及：約45至46年；猶太：約44至48年）。這些糧荒是否構成一場廣泛的匱乏，還是《使徒行傳》作出了概括，仍有爭議。", "饑荒的確切年份無法確定。《猶太古史》20.101既可讀作涵蓋兩位總督的任期，也可讀作只涉及提庇留．亞歷山大。約瑟夫斯另一處提到饑荒的記載（《猶太古史》3.320）提到一位名叫以實瑪利的大祭司，但第20卷在記述克勞第去世之後，才記載亞基帕二世委任一位以實瑪利（《猶太古史》20.179）。", "後來的基督教作家沒有提供獨立的證據。優西比烏引用約瑟夫斯（《教會史》2.11.3–2.12.1）；奧羅修斯（《駁異教徒史》7.6.12）則把一場遍及敘利亞的饑荒定在克勞第在位第四年，又說海倫娜歸信了基督，與約瑟夫斯的記載相反。如果路加使用過約瑟夫斯的著作，《使徒行傳》關於饑荒的記載也不是獨立的。" ], "debate": "年代：Whiston把《猶太古史》20.101譯作「在這些總督任內」，涵蓋法杜斯和提庇留．亞歷山大；Niese所刊印的希臘文本作單數，這會把饑荒限定在提庇留．亞歷山大任內（約46至48年）。學者提出的年份，從46年（Ramsay）或46/47年（Gapp，根據埃及紙莎草文獻）到47/48年（Jeremias，安息年）不等。範圍：Ramsay和Gapp都認為《使徒行傳》所說的普天下饑荒確有其事，只是理解方式不同；Schürer則判定那是不合史實的概括。依賴關係：《猶太古史》20.97–102先記丟大，再記猶大的兒子們，因此有人主張路加讀過約瑟夫斯的著作；另一些人則認為兩者差異太大。那次探訪：有人把它等同於《加拉太書》2:1–10所記的探訪；另一些人則認為《加拉太書》1至2章容不下這次探訪。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加把一場地方饑荒概括化", "statement": "Ramsay記述，Emil Schürer判定路加對饑荒的陳述不合史實、不大可能，也缺乏佐證；而修訂版的Schürer著作（1973年）仍認為一場遍及全世界的饑荒不大可能。按這種看法，《使徒行傳》把猶太的饑荒變成了一件世界性的事件。一些批評者根據保羅在《加拉太書》1至2章對自己上耶路撒冷的親身記述，也把巴拿巴和掃羅送賑濟的探訪視為路加的建構，而不是另一次獨立的行程。" }, { "label": "在位期間接連出現的地區性糧荒", "statement": "Ramsay主張，《使徒行傳》聲稱的是克勞第在位期間羅馬世界各地出現饑荒，而不是在某一年之內。按他的讀法，羅馬和其他地方在不同年份出現的糧荒，加上猶太的饑荒（他認為很可能在公元46年），已足以滿足這項說法。" }, { "label": "一場廣泛的匱乏", "statement": "Gapp（1935年）根據埃及紙莎草文獻主張，45至46年尼羅河水位極高，使埃及種植小麥無利可圖；他又主張，那場普天下的饑荒不能僅僅解釋為一連串地方饑荒。Winter（1989年）同樣認為這場糧荒範圍廣泛，雖然並非各地同時感受到。" }, { "label": "《使徒行傳》取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "《猶太古史》20.97–102先記法杜斯任內的丟大，再記加利利人猶大的兒子們被處決，並追述猶大的叛亂。《使徒行傳》5:36–37先提丟大，再提猶大，因此有人主張路加依循了約瑟夫斯的次序。另一些人回應說，《使徒行傳》把丟大放在公元6年猶大叛亂之前，所記的追隨者也不同，這是讀過約瑟夫斯的人很難寫出來的。" }, { "label": "送賑濟的探訪即《加拉太書》2章", "statement": "Ramsay和許多接受送賑濟探訪為史實的人一樣，把它等同於《加拉太書》2:1–10中保羅在耶路撒冷的私下會面，並指出那裡有要記念窮人的請求。另一些人把《加拉太書》2章等同於《使徒行傳》15章的會議，並以其他方式調和送賑濟的探訪與《加拉太書》，或懷疑這次探訪是否發生過。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-famine" }, { "id": "josephus-agrippa-bernice", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 130, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 25:13-26:32", "Acts 25:13-22", "Acts 25:23", "Acts 26:3", "Acts 26:30-32" ], "personIds": [ "person.agrippa", "person.bernice", "person.festus", "person.paul", "person.josephus", "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.claudius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.jerusalem", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.145-147 (Whiston 20.7.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D7%3Awhiston%20section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when the report went that she had criminal conversation with her brother, [Agrippa, junior,] she persuaded Poleme, who was king of Cilicia, to be circumcised, and to marry her, as supposing that by this means she should prove those calumnies upon her to be false", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.137-140 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D7%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he bestowed upon Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip and Batanea, and added thereto Trachonites, with Abila; which last had been the tetrarchy of Lysanias; but he took from him Chalcis, when he had been governor thereof four years.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.158-159 (Whiston 20.8.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D8%3Awhiston%20section%3D4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Caesar also bestowed on Agrippa a certain part of Galilee, Tiberias, and Tarichae, and ordered them to submit to his jurisdiction. He gave him also Julias, a city of Perea, with fourteen villages that lay about it.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.189-196 (Whiston 20.8.11)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D8%3Awhiston%20section%3D11", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "At these doings both king Agrippa, and principally Festus the procurator, were much displeased; and Festus ordered them to pull the wall down again", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.222-223 (Whiston 20.9.7)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D9%3Awhiston%20section%3D7", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But king Agrippa, who had the care of the temple committed to him by Claudius Caesar", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 19.354 (Whiston 19.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D19%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D9%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But he left behind him a son, Agrippa by name, a youth in the seventeenth year of his age, and three daughters; one of which, Bernice, was married to Herod, his father's brother, and was sixteen years old;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.342-344 (Whiston 2.16.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D16%3Awhiston%20section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He therefore called the multitude together into a large gallery, and placed his sister Bernice in the house of the Asamoneans, that she might be seen by them,", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.402-404 (Whiston 2.16.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D16%3Awhiston%20section%3D5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "When Agrippa had spoken thus, both he and his sister wept, and by their tears repressed a great deal of the violence of the people;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.405-407 (Whiston 2.17.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D17%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "THIS advice the people hearkened to, and went up into the temple with the king and Bernice, and began to rebuild the cloisters;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.426 (Whiston 2.17.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D17%3Awhiston%20section%3D6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The others then set fire to the house of Ananias the high priest, and to the palaces of Agrippa and Bernice;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "juvenal-ramsay", "author": "Juvenal", "work": "Satires (Satire 6)", "locator": "Sat. 6.156-159", "url": "https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/juvenal_satires_06.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a diamond of great renown, made precious by the finger of Berenice. It was given as a present long ago by the barbarian Agrippa to his incestuous sister, in that country where kings celebrate festal sabbaths with bare feet", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "G. G. Ramsay", "year": "1918" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Histories", "locator": "Hist. 2.2", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some supposed that he retraced his steps for love of Queen Berenice, nor was his young heart averse to her charms, but this affection occasioned no hindrance to action.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (reprinted 1942, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Histories", "locator": "Hist. 2.81", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D81", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Queen Berenice too, who was then in the prime of youth and beauty, and who had charmed even the old Vespasian by the splendour of her presents, promoted his cause with equal zeal.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (reprinted 1942, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Titus", "locator": "Tit. 7.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "his notorious passion for queen Berenice, to whom it was even said that he promised marriage.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History (Epitome)", "locator": "66.15.3-4 (Boissevain numbering, as in the LacusCurtius section anchors; printed in Cary's Loeb as Book 65)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Berenice was at the very height of her power and consequently came to Rome along with her brother Agrippa. The latter was given the rank of praetor, while she dwelt in the palace, cohabiting with Titus.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1925" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Max Krenkel", "work": "Josephus und Lucas", "year": "1894", "view": "Argued at length that Luke-Acts depends on Josephus' writings. This classic case for literary dependence would make Acts' agreement with Josephus derivative." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argued that the accuracy of Acts' local and official details reflects early, independent knowledge. He rejected the case for Luke's dependence on Josephus." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus' writings, since the overlaps between them, including Agrippa II and Bernice, would otherwise be a near-incredible series of coincidences. He grants that this cannot be proved." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century and argues that its author used Josephus' Antiquities." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q313419", "label": "Agrippa II" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q466696", "label": "Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44276", "label": "The Jewish War" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7426233", "label": "Satire VI (Juvenal)" } ], "title": "約瑟夫斯與尤維納利斯筆下的亞基帕二世王和百妮基", "summary": "約瑟夫斯證實，亞基帕二世是受託照管耶路撒冷聖殿的羅馬附庸王；他也記述亞基帕的姊妹百妮基在公開場合伴在他身旁，正如《使徒行傳》25:13–26:32在凱撒利亞所描寫的。他又記載兩人亂倫的傳聞，尤維納利斯則以諷刺的筆法重提此事。這些資料證實的是這兩人及其地位，而不是保羅的聽審；也有一些學者認為路加曾取材自約瑟夫斯。", "dating": "約瑟夫斯的《猶太戰記》約成於公元75至79年，《猶太古史》成於公元93/94年（完成於圖密善在位第十三年，《猶太古史》20.267）；尤維納利斯的《諷刺詩》第六首成於二世紀初。所述事件從公元44年延續到七十年代。塔西佗和蘇埃托尼烏斯（二世紀初）落在dateFrom至dateTo的範圍之內；狄奧（三世紀初）是較晚的佐證，在此範圍之外。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "希律王之子亞基帕二世，在《使徒行傳》25至26章所述的年間，擁有一個由羅馬授予的王國。克勞第把腓力從前的分封領地賜給他，以取代卡爾基斯；尼祿又加給他提比哩亞、塔里基亞和猶利亞（約瑟夫斯，《猶太古史》19.354；20.138、20.159）。《使徒行傳》給他的王號與這項記載相符。", "約瑟夫斯記述亞基帕和總督非斯都都捲入一場有關耶路撒冷聖殿的爭端。他說克勞第曾把照管聖殿的責任交託給亞基帕，而亞基帕任免大祭司（《猶太古史》20.189–196、20.222–223）。這與《使徒行傳》描寫非斯都把一宗猶太宗教爭議呈到他面前的情景相符（《使徒行傳》25:13–22；26:3）。", "百妮基是亞基帕的姊妹，也是卡爾基斯的希律之遺孀（《猶太古史》20.145）；公元66年，她公開出現在他身旁。他演說時，她被安置在耶路撒冷群眾看得見的地方；她與他一同哭泣，又與他一同上聖殿。叛亂者焚燒了“亞基帕和百妮基的宮殿”（《猶太戰記》2.344、402、405、426）。《使徒行傳》則記述她在凱撒利亞與王同在（《使徒行傳》25:13、23；26:30）。", "古代作者流傳著百妮基與她兄弟亂倫的傳聞。約瑟夫斯記載了這傳聞，也記載她為了證明傳聞不實而嫁給基利家王波勒摩（《猶太古史》20.145–146）；尤維納利斯則把它當作諷刺的嘲弄重提（《諷刺詩》6.156–159）。這顯示的是兩人的名聲，而不是指控屬實。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些資料沒有一份提到保羅或凱撒利亞的聽審。它們證實的是相關人物及其地位，而不是《使徒行傳》25:13–26:32所敘述的事件、演說或裁決。", "它們不能證明亂倫的指控。約瑟夫斯把它呈現為傳聞，而百妮基視之為誹謗。尤維納利斯是數十年後寫作的諷刺詩人，而當時的羅馬曾敵視那位與提圖斯有牽連的東方女王（塔西佗《歷史》2.2；蘇埃托尼烏斯《提圖斯傳》7.1；狄奧66.15.3–4）。", "與約瑟夫斯相符，本身並不能顯示路加獨立於他。正確的名字和頭銜可能來自對這兩位顯赫王室成員的一般認識；也有一些學者主張路加知道約瑟夫斯的著作。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍未解決。第一，《使徒行傳》與約瑟夫斯有何關係。有些學者主張路加使用過《猶太古史》；若是這樣，關於亞基帕和百妮基的吻合就是衍生的，而不是獨立的。另一些學者則指出兩者在其他地方的差異，以及這兩人在五十和六十年代何等顯赫，因而認為這是獨立的知識。第二，亂倫傳聞背後是什麼。它可能是針對一位寡居王后的惡意閒話——她住在兄弟的宮廷裡，後來又因與提圖斯的關係而令羅馬譁然；也可能是當時廣為人相信的說法。沒有任何資料能提供名聲以外的證據。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加取材自約瑟夫斯", "statement": "如果《使徒行傳》寫於公元93/94年之後，它對亞基帕和百妮基的描寫就可能來自約瑟夫斯的《猶太古史》，正如Max Krenkel（1894）和Richard Pervo（2006）所主張的。按這種看法，兩者的吻合顯示的是路加的資料來源，而不是獨立的佐證。Steve Mason（1992）主張路加很可能知道約瑟夫斯的著作，但他承認這一點無法證明。" }, { "label": "早期的獨立知識", "statement": "Colin Hemer（1989）等人認為，《使徒行傳》對羅馬官員和附庸王室的處理，反映了早期而獨立的知識。按這種看法，亞基帕和百妮基是顯赫的公眾人物，兩人一同露面的事在猶太和敘利亞應是廣為人知的，所以路加不需要文獻來源，也能正確地稱呼他們。" }, { "label": "傳聞是誹謗，還是時人的看法", "statement": "約瑟夫斯把這項指控寫成百妮基試圖駁斥的傳言，而尤維納利斯的詩句是謾罵，因此許多讀者把這傳聞視為閒話。另一些人則指出，對亞基帕懷有好感的約瑟夫斯仍選擇記下此事，而且他說百妮基離開波勒摩，“據說”是出於不潔的意圖（《猶太古史》20.146）。他們認為這表示這種看法流傳甚廣，雖然仍未獲證實。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-agrippa-bernice" }, { "id": "claudius-expulsion", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 119, "dateTo": 122, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:1-3", "Acts 18:12-17", "Romans 16:3-5", "Acts 28:17" ], "personIds": [ "person.claudius", "person.aquila", "person.priscilla", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Life of Claudius (Lives of the Caesars)", "locator": "Claud. 25.4", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Loeb Suetonius, editor's note 75 on Claud. 25.4", "locator": "Claud. 25.4, note 75", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Another form of Christus; see Tert. Apol. 3 (at the end). It is uncertain whether Suetonius is guilty of an error in chronology or is referring to some Jew of that name. The former seems probable because of the absence of quodam.", "role": "early-study", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Divus Claudius (Latin text as printed in the Loeb Classical Library, 1913)", "locator": "Claud. 25.4", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit.", "role": "edition", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Suetonius, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library), Introduction", "locator": "Introduction, 'The Life and Works of Suetonius'", "url": "https://archive.org/download/suetonius01suet_0/suetonius01suet_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of all these the only work which has come down to us entire, or nearly so, is the Lives of the Caesars, published in 120.", "role": "early-study", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Suetonius, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library), Introduction", "locator": "Introduction, 'The Life and Works of Suetonius'", "url": "https://archive.org/download/suetonius01suet_0/suetonius01suet_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "probably during the period when his friend and patron Gaius Septicius Clarus was a prefect of the praetorian guard (119 to 121).", "role": "early-study", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Life of Nero (Lives of the Caesars)", "locator": "Nero 16.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "locator": "60.6.6", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he did not drive them out, but ordered them, while continuing their traditional mode of life, not to hold meetings.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Paulus Orosius", "work": "Historiarum adversum paganos libri VII", "locator": "7.6.15", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Anno eiusdem nono expulsos per Claudium urbe Iudaeos Iosephus refert. sed me magis Suetonius mouet, qui ait hoc modo: Claudius Iudaeos inpulsore Christo adsidue tumultuantes Roma expulit", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Paulus Orosius", "work": "Historiarum adversum paganos libri VII", "locator": "7.6.16", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "quod, utrum contra Christum tumultuantes Iudaeos coherceri et conprimi iusserit, an etiam Christianos simul uelut cognatae religionis homines uoluerit expelli, nequaquam discernitur.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.81-84 (Whiston 18.3.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=3:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "ordered all the Jews to be banished out of Rome; at which time the consuls listed four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island Sardinia", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Gerd Lüdemann", "work": "Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology", "year": "1984 (German original 1980)", "view": "Dates Claudius's edict to AD 41, treating Suetonius's notice and Dio 60.6.6 as one measure and setting aside Orosius's date. On that basis he argues for an early Pauline mission in Greece, including Corinth, before the Jerusalem meeting, and reads Acts 18 as combining material from more than one visit." }, { "author": "Rainer Riesner", "work": "Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology", "year": "1998 (German original 1994)", "view": "Defends AD 49 for the expulsion and reads Chrestus as Christ. Treats Dio's ban on meetings as an earlier, separate measure, consistent with Acts 18:2." }, { "author": "H. Dixon Slingerland", "work": "Claudian Policymaking and the Early Imperial Repression of Judaism at Rome", "year": "1997", "view": "Argues that 'Chrestus' is not Christ and that the burden of proof lies with those who identify them. Holds that Claud. 25.4 and Dio 60.6.6 describe different events, and suggests Chrestus may have been someone, perhaps a freedman adviser, who prompted Claudius to act. Reads Claudius's measures as Roman repression of Judaism, not as evidence about the Roman church." }, { "author": "Peter Lampe", "work": "From Paul to Valentinus: Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries", "year": "2003 (German original 1987)", "view": "Reads Chrestus as Christ and rejects dating the edict to AD 41. Disputes over Jesus within Rome's synagogues led Claudius to expel those involved, not the whole Jewish community." }, { "author": "Robert E. Van Voorst", "work": "Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence", "year": "2000", "view": "Judges Chrestus most likely an error for Christus, reflecting Suetonius's misunderstanding of disputes about Christ among Roman Jews." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5129460", "label": "Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1411", "label": "Claudius" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q11085604", "label": "Priscilla and Aquila" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q220", "label": "Rome" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" } ], "title": "克勞第把猶太人逐出羅馬（蘇埃托尼烏斯《克勞第傳》25.4）", "summary": "非基督徒的羅馬傳記作家蘇埃托尼烏斯記載，克勞第因猶太人“在Chrestus的煽動下”不斷製造騷亂，把他們逐出羅馬（《克勞第傳》25.4）。這是《使徒行傳》18:2所提那類命令的獨立證據。蘇埃托尼烏斯沒有給出日期。通常採用的公元49年只來自五世紀的奧羅修斯；狄奧只記載公元41年的一道禁止聚會令；而“Chrestus”是否指基督，仍有爭議。", "dating": "主要見證：蘇埃托尼烏斯的《羅馬十二帝王傳》，約公元119至122年。Rolfe（1913）把該書的發表定在120年，並把其受獻者塞普提基烏斯．克拉魯斯擔任長官的時間定在119至121年；dateFrom和dateTo標示的就是這個寫作時段。事件時段：克勞第在公元41年至約49年間的一項或多項措施。狄奧（三世紀初）把禁止猶太人聚會列為克勞第在位第一年（公元41年）的舉措；奧羅修斯（五世紀初）則把驅逐定在克勞第在位第九年（約公元49年）。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "非基督徒的羅馬傳記作家蘇埃托尼烏斯（《克勞第傳》25.4）記載，克勞第因猶太人在一個名叫“Chrestus”的人煽動下不斷暴亂，把他們逐出羅馬。這是克勞第下令驅逐的獨立證據，與《使徒行傳》18:2所說的那次驅逐相似；《使徒行傳》以那次驅逐解釋亞居拉和百基拉為何新近從意大利來。兩者很可能是同一道命令，但這取決於有爭議的日期。", "卡西烏斯．狄奧（60.6.6）把一項有關猶太人的措施列為克勞第在位第一年（公元41年）的舉措。他說猶太人人數太多，若要把他們拒於城外，難免引起騷亂，所以克勞第沒有驅逐他們，而是讓他們保持傳統的生活方式，但禁止他們聚會。這是對同一行動的不同記述，還是另一項措施，仍有爭議。", "奧羅修斯（《反異教徒史》7.6.15）給出唯一明確的日期：克勞第在位第九年，約公元49年。他說這項記載出自約瑟夫斯，但約瑟夫斯現存的著作中並無已知的相應段落。這些著作描述的是較早時在提庇留治下把猶太人逐出羅馬的事（《猶太古史》18.81–84）。", "古代作者會混淆這兩種拼法。奧羅修斯引用蘇埃托尼烏斯時寫作“inpulsore Christo”，並把它理解為基督；不過他說，自己無法判斷克勞第所指的是反對基督而暴亂的猶太人，還是連基督徒也包括在內（7.6.16）。Rolfe的註釋稱Chrestus為“Christus的另一種形式”，並提到特土良曾抱怨異教徒把名稱誤讀為“Chrestianus”（《護教篇》3）。這使讀作基督的解釋顯得合理，卻不能證明它。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能顯示“Chrestus”就是耶穌，也不能顯示那些暴亂是因基督教的傳道而起的爭執。蘇埃托尼烏斯兩者都沒有說。Loeb版所印的拉丁文作“Chresto”，而蘇埃托尼烏斯稱尼祿治下受懲罰的群體為“Christiani”（《尼祿傳》16.2）。", "它不能顯示有多少猶太人離開了羅馬，或離開了多久。《使徒行傳》描述的是一道涵蓋所有猶太人的命令，而狄奧關於公元41年的記載卻說克勞第沒有驅逐他們。後來，百基拉和亞居拉（假如《羅馬書》16章是寫給羅馬的）以及羅馬的猶太領袖，又再出現在城中（《羅馬書》16:3–5；《使徒行傳》28:17）。", "它不能提供一個可靠的公元49年日期。蘇埃托尼烏斯沒有給出日期，並把這則記載放在一些互不相關的措施之中；奧羅修斯所援引的權威也無從查證。" ], "debate": "許多歷史學家把“Chrestus”視為羅馬人對Christus的誤拼。按這種看法，傳講耶穌是基督，在羅馬的會堂中引起衝突，捲入其中的人遭到驅逐。《使徒行傳》沒有說明亞居拉和百基拉當時是否已是信徒。另一些學者，例如Slingerland，指出Chrestus是常見的人名，蘇埃托尼烏斯知道“Christiani”這個詞，而大約同時寫作的塔西佗用的是正確的形式“Christus”（《編年史》15.44）。按這種看法，Chrestus另有其人：一個本地的煽動者，或是促使克勞第採取行動的某人。至於日期，許多人接受奧羅修斯的公元49年，並把狄奧所記的禁止聚會令視為41年較早的一步。另一些人則認為兩項記載描述的是同一事件，並且不信任奧羅修斯援引約瑟夫斯之說，因為那是無從查證的。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "Chrestus另有其人，並非基督", "statement": "蘇埃托尼烏斯所指的，可能是一個確實名叫Chrestus的人。Rolfe在1914年的註釋中提出這個可能（“某個叫這名字的猶太人”），不過他認為讀作基督的可能性較大。H. Dixon Slingerland（1997）否定讀作基督的解釋，並提出Chrestus是促使克勞第採取行動的某人，也許是一位被釋奴出身的謀士。無論哪種情況，這段文字都證實克勞第曾下令驅逐，卻沒有提到羅馬的信徒。" }, { "label": "公元41年的單一措施", "statement": "蘇埃托尼烏斯和狄奧描述的是克勞第在位初期的同一項行動，而奧羅修斯的49年並不可靠。若是這樣，亞居拉和百基拉新近抵達哥林多一事，就需要保羅較早已到過那裡（如Lüdemann的年表），或者需要較寬鬆地解讀《使徒行傳》18:1–3。" }, { "label": "兩項措施：公元41年和約公元49年", "statement": "狄奧描述的是41年首次禁止猶太人聚會。蘇埃托尼烏斯、《使徒行傳》和奧羅修斯描述的是約49年較後的一次驅逐，可能只限於捲入騷亂的人。這與保羅在迦流出任省長前不久抵達哥林多相符（《使徒行傳》18:12–17）。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-claudius-expulsion" }, { "id": "tacitus-neronian-persecution", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 110, "dateTo": 120, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 28:15", "Acts 28:30-31", "Romans 1:7-8" ], "personIds": [ "person.nero", "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.judea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.38", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=38", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "A disaster followed, whether accidental or treacherously contrived by the emperor, is uncertain, as authors have given both accounts", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.41", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=41", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some persons observed that the beginning of this conflagration was on the 19th of July, the day on which the Senones captured and fired Rome.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Nero", "locator": "Nero 16.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History (epitome of Book 62)", "locator": "62.16.1 (fire narrative 62.16-18; Christians not mentioned)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "After this Nero set his heart on accomplishing what had doubtless always been his desire, namely to make an end of the whole city and realm during his lifetime.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1925" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome (traditional attribution)", "work": "1 Clement", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.5-6", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius (quoting Tertullian)", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.25.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.22.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Thus after he had made his defense it is said that the apostle was sent again upon the ministry of preaching, and that upon coming to the same city a second time he suffered martyrdom.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "locator": "Prescr. 36 (of the church at Rome)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Brent D. Shaw", "work": "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution (Journal of Roman Studies 105)", "year": "2015", "view": "Contests the conventional picture of a state persecution under Nero, including the mass execution after the fire and the deaths of Peter and Paul. Holds that Annals 15.44 is probably genuine Tacitus but reflects ideas current when Tacitus wrote, not the realities of the 60s." }, { "author": "Christopher P. Jones", "work": "The Historicity of the Neronian Persecution: A Response to Brent Shaw (New Testament Studies 63)", "year": "2017", "view": "Holds that there are no grounds for doubting Tacitus's report of the persecution. Notes that later sources dating the deaths of Peter and Paul to Nero's reign have no bearing on whether Tacitus's account is true." }, { "author": "Richard Carrier", "work": "The Prospect of a Christian Interpolation in Tacitus, Annals 15.44 (Vigiliae Christianae 68)", "year": "2014", "view": "Argues that the arguments for a late interpolation have no strong rebuttal, so the sentence referring to Christ should be considered suspect." }, { "author": "Henry Furneaux, rev. H. F. Pelham and C. D. Fisher", "work": "The Annals of Tacitus, vol. 2: Books XI-XVI (Oxford, 2nd ed.)", "year": "1907", "view": "Defends the passage as genuine on grounds of its Tacitean style and its partial transcription by Sulpicius Severus, while calling it a narrative necessarily at second hand. Judges that Suetonius follows a different authority, that Tertullian shows no knowledge of the passage, and that only Sulpicius Severus unmistakably follows Tacitus's narrative. Describes the second Medicean manuscript (latter half of the 11th century, Laurentian Library) as containing all that survives of Books 11-16." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q564358", "label": "Annals (Tacitus)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7673903", "label": "Tacitus on Christ" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q215231", "label": "Great Fire of Rome" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2161", "label": "Tacitus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1413", "label": "Nero" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" } ], "title": "塔西佗論羅馬大火後尼祿懲處基督徒（《編年史》15.44）", "summary": "塔西佗寫於二世紀初的《編年史》15.44，是唯一獨立而詳細的記述，講述尼祿把64年7月的大火歸咎於羅馬的基督徒，並殺害了其中許多人；蘇爾皮修斯．塞維魯後來的記述依據的就是它。這段記載意味著，在《羅馬書》和《使徒行傳》28章時代的羅馬，已有相當規模的基督徒群體。它沒有提到任何一位使徒的名字，也沒有談及保羅之死；少數歷史學家主張，它反映的更多是塔西佗自己的時代，而不是六十年代。", "dating": "寫於公元二世紀初：《編年史》一般定於約110至120年，Furneaux（1907）則認為它完成於迫害之後足足五十年。所記述的是公元64年7月19日大火之後的事件（《編年史》15.41）。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承。《編年史》第11至16卷靠第二美第奇抄本（十一世紀下半葉）傳世，該抄本現藏佛羅倫斯的洛倫佐圖書館（Furneaux 1907）", "establishes": [ "塔西佗是羅馬元老和歷史學家，對這個運動抱有敵意。他記載，64年7月大火之後，尼祿把罪責轉嫁給群眾稱為基督徒的人，並有大批人被定罪，在尼祿的花園中以公開表演的方式被處死（《編年史》15.44；大火的日期見15.41）。", "按塔西佗的記述，到64年時，羅馬的基督徒已人數眾多、引人注目，足以被單獨挑出來。這與《羅馬書》1:7–8所預設、已在羅馬確立的信徒群體相符；在《使徒行傳》28:15中，這個群體的成員出來迎接保羅。", "蘇埃托尼烏斯另外把懲處基督徒列在尼祿的治安措施之中（《尼祿傳》16.2）。Furneaux判斷他依據的是另一個權威來源；他沒有把此事與大火聯繫起來。因此，尼祿時代在羅馬針對基督徒的行動並非只靠塔西佗一人的記載，但與大火的關聯卻只靠他：狄奧對大火的記述沒有提到基督徒（狄奧62.16–18）。", "基督教傳統認為保羅在尼祿治下死於羅馬；這段記載為這項傳統提供了非基督教的背景。《革利免一書》5章（一般定於約公元96年）說保羅在掌權者面前作了見證，然後離開了這個世界，但沒有提到尼祿的名字。特土良指名尼祿是第一個迫害者，並把保羅之死放在羅馬；優西比烏則把它定在尼祿治下（《教會史》2.25.4–5；《論異端的時效》36）。這項傳統大體上是在不依賴塔西佗的情況下發展起來的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它既沒有提到保羅，也沒有提到彼得或任何一位基督徒的名字，所以不能作為保羅死於64年報復行動的證據。尼祿與保羅之死的關聯來自基督教作者。在古代基督教作者中，只有蘇爾皮修斯．塞維魯（約公元400年）明顯沿用塔西佗的敘述（Furneaux 1907），而他接著把保羅和彼得被定罪的時間定在那個時期（《編年史》2.29）。", "它沒有確定保羅死亡的年份、在羅馬的地點或方式。特土良暗示他被斬首（“像約翰那樣的死”），優西比烏也記載了這一點；塔西佗對此隻字未提。保羅在《使徒行傳》28章的拘押之後是否獲釋，是另一個問題。", "它不能顯示是基督徒縱火，也不能顯示是尼祿縱火：塔西佗說起火原因不明（《編年史》15.38）。它也不能顯示64年時已經有一條針對基督徒的普遍法律，或一場遍及帝國的迫害。" ], "debate": "大多數歷史學家接受《編年史》15.44確實出自塔西佗手筆。Brent Shaw（2015）認為它很可能是真的，但主張它反映的是塔西佗自己時代的觀念。他質疑尼祿曾下令集體處決，也質疑彼得和保羅死於尼祿治下。Christopher P. Jones（2017）回應說，沒有理由懷疑塔西佗的記述。Richard Carrier（2014）主張，提到Christus的那一句應被視為疑似後人插入的文字。另一個懸而未決的問題是：保羅是死於64年的報復行動、死於此前，還是在獲釋後死於尼祿在位較後的時期。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "真確但時代錯置（Shaw）", "statement": "這一章很可能是塔西佗本人的作品，但它把基督徒與大火連在一起，反映的是二世紀初的假設。按這種看法，尼祿在64年並沒有下令集體處決基督徒，而這段文字也不能確立彼得和保羅在尼祿治下殉道。" }, { "label": "提及Christus的句子可疑（Carrier）", "statement": "指出Christus在本丟．彼拉多治下被處死的那一句，可能是後來由基督徒加上的文字，應視為可疑。這項質疑針對的是那一句，而不是關於尼祿施行懲處的記述本身。" }, { "label": "保羅之死與大火無關", "statement": "保羅可能在64年之前，即《使徒行傳》28:30–31所記兩年拘押期結束時去世；也可能在獲釋並第二次在羅馬被囚之後，於尼祿在位較後的時期去世，優西比烏把這一點當作傳統來記述（“據說”，《教會史》2.22.2）。無論哪種看法，塔西佗提供的都是大致背景，而不是事件本身。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-tacitus-neronian-persecution" }, { "id": "polycarp-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 110, "dateTo": 140, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1040" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 16:11-40", "Acts 2:24", "Philippians 1:5", "Philippians 2:16", "2 Thessalonians 1:4", "1 Corinthians 6:2", "1 Corinthians 6:9-10", "Galatians 4:26", "Galatians 6:7", "Ephesians 2:8-9", "Ephesians 4:26", "1 Timothy 2:1-2", "1 Timothy 6:7-10", "2 Timothy 4:10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.philippi" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 3.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul, who when he came among you taught face to face with the men of that day the word which concerneth truth carefully and surely; who also, when he was absent, wrote a letter unto you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 9.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which also ye saw with your own eyes in the blessed Ignatius and Zosimus and Rufus, yea and in others also who came from among yourselves, as well as in Paul himself and the rest of the Apostles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 9.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "being persuaded that all these ran not in vain but in faith and righteousness, and that they are in their due place in the presence of the Lord, with whom also they suffered.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as Paul teacheth?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "among whom the blessed Paul labored, who were his letters in the beginning. For he boasteth of you in all those churches which alone at that time knew God; for we knew Him not as yet.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 12.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For I am persuaded that ye are well trained in the sacred writings, and nothing is hidden from you. But to myself this is not granted. Only, as it is said in these scriptures,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 13.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover concerning Ignatius himself and those that were with him, if ye have any sure tidings, certify us.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 3, note 358", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The form is plural, but one Epistle is probably meant.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 1, note 341", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Acts ii. 24. Literally, “having loosed the pains of Hades.”", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 10, note 391", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.x.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This and the two following chapters are preserved only in a Latin version.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 11, note 401", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some read, “named;” comp. Phil. i. 5.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 414", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Henceforth, to the end, we have only the Latin version.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 415", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Latin version reads “are,” which has been corrected as above.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 416", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Polycarp was aware of the death of Ignatius (chap. ix.), but was as yet apparently ignorant of the circumstances attending it.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Ante-Nicene Fathers translators", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "year": "1885", "locator": "Introductory Note (original Introductory Notice), on chapter 13", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "While there is no ground for supposing, as some have done, that the whole Epistle is spurious, there seems considerable force in the arguments by which many others have sought to prove chap. xiii. to be an interpolation.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Ante-Nicene Fathers translators", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "year": "1885", "locator": "Introductory Note (original Introductory Notice), on the date", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We shall not, however, probably be far wrong if we fix it about the middle of the second century.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.36.13", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Polycarp also mentions these letters in the epistle to the Philippians which is ascribed to him.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.36.15", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For they comprise faith and patience, and every kind of edification that pertains to our Lord. So much concerning Ignatius.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.14.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But Polycarp, in his above-mentioned epistle to the Philippians, which is still extant, has made use of certain testimonies drawn from the First Epistle of Peter.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.4 (Polycarp's letter)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is also a very powerful Epistle of Polycarp written to the Philippians, from which those who choose to do so, and are anxious about their salvation, can learn the character of his faith, and the preaching of the truth.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.4 (Polycarp and Marcion)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And Polycarp himself replied to Marcion, who met him on one occasion, and said, Do you know me? I do know you, the first-born of Satan.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "locator": "Q914111 (P7988 Clavis Patrum Graecorum ID 1040)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q914111.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place record: Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis", "locator": "501482", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/501482/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part II: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp", "year": "1885", "view": "Defended the authenticity and integrity of Polycarp's letter as a single letter written soon after Ignatius passed through Smyrna and Philippi, and used it as key external evidence for the Ignatian letters." }, { "author": "P. N. Harrison", "work": "Polycarp's Two Epistles to the Philippians", "year": "1936", "view": "Influential partition theory: chapter 13 (with 14) is an early covering note sent with Ignatius's letters, and chapters 1–12 are a separate, later letter of about 135." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Polykarp von Smyrna und die Pastoralbriefe", "year": "1951", "view": "Proposed that Polycarp or his circle composed the Pastoral Epistles, a minority view that would explain the 1 Timothy parallels as common origin rather than reception." }, { "author": "Kenneth Berding", "work": "Polycarp of Smyrna's View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy (Vigiliae Christianae)", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that because allusions to 1 and 2 Timothy follow Polycarp's explicit references to Paul, Polycarp probably regarded those letters as Paul's." }, { "author": "Kenneth Berding", "work": "Polycarp and Paul: An Analysis of Their Literary and Theological Relationship in Light of Polycarp's Use of Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature", "year": "2002", "view": "Finds Polycarp heavily indebted to the Pauline letters, with Pauline allusions clustering near his mentions of Paul, and argues he knew most of the Pauline corpus, including the Pastorals." }, { "author": "Paul Hartog", "work": "Polycarp and the New Testament: The Occasion, Rhetoric, Theme, and Unity of the Epistle to the Philippians and Its Allusions to New Testament Literature", "year": "2002", "view": "Defends the unity of the letter against the two-letter theory and assesses its allusions to New Testament writings." }, { "author": "Michael W. Holmes", "work": "Polycarp's Letter to the Philippians and the Writings that Later Formed the New Testament, in A. F. Gregory and C. M. Tuckett (eds.), The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "2005", "view": "Grades each proposed parallel by probability instead of counting every verbal echo, separating very likely uses of Pauline letters from merely possible ones." }, { "author": "Timothy D. Barnes", "work": "The Date of Ignatius (Expository Times)", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues that Ignatius's letters belong to the 140s rather than Trajan's reign. If accepted, this would also move the date of Polycarp's letter, which is tied to Ignatius." }, { "author": "Kirsopp Lake", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1912", "view": "Edition and translation that renders the plural of 3.2 as letters and describes the textual basis: defective Greek manuscripts, Eusebius's quotations and the Latin version. Named here as further reading; not cited as a source." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q914111", "label": "Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q192371", "label": "Polycarp" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "501482", "label": "Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "550893", "label": "Smyrna/Eurydikeia" } ], "title": "坡旅甲《致腓立比人書》論保羅及其書信", "summary": "士每拿的坡旅甲寫給腓立比教會的信（約公元110至140年）憶述保羅曾親自在那裡教導，後來又寫信給他們（3.2；11.3）。信中把保羅列入受苦的使徒之中（9.1–2），把《哥林多前書》中的一項教導歸於他，又呼應《以弗所書》和《提摩太前書》，可見這些書信和記憶很早就已在使用。它不能確定誰寫了《以弗所書》或《提摩太前書》，也沒有為《使徒行傳》增添任何事件。", "dating": "約公元110至140年。通常定在伊格那丟前往羅馬途中經過士每拿和腓立比之後不久；按Harrison的兩封信理論，1至12章屬於約135年。《尼西亞前教父著作》的譯者說明把這封信定在二世紀中葉左右；少數學者採用Barnes把伊格那丟定於140年代的看法，會把它定得更晚。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "坡旅甲告訴腓立比信徒，保羅曾親自在他們中間教導，不在時又寫信給他們，並曾在他們中間“勞苦”（3.2；11.3）。這是二世紀初教會的記憶，與《使徒行傳》16章和保羅的《腓立比書》相符。", "他把《哥林多前書》6:2的教導歸於保羅（“正如保羅所教導的”，11.2）。他的文字與《提摩太前書》6:7和6:10（4.1）、《以弗所書》2:8–9（1.3）以及《以弗所書》4:26（12.1）十分相近，因此在他寫信時，士每拿極有可能已知道《以弗所書》的措辭，也很可能已知道《提摩太前書》的措辭。", "另有一些措辭類似《加拉太書》4:26（3.3）、《加拉太書》6:7（5.1）、《哥林多前書》6:9–10（5.3）、《腓立比書》2:16和《提摩太後書》4:10（9.2），以及《提摩太前書》2:1–2（12.3）。這些是編者對措辭所作的比較；它們顯示坡旅甲熟悉保羅的用語，卻不能顯示他持有哪些書信，或他怎樣看待這些書信。", "他把“保羅本人和其餘的使徒”與伊格那丟及腓立比信徒並列，作為忍耐的榜樣：他們與主一同受苦，如今與主同在（9.1–2）。", "這封信很早就有見證。約公元180年時，愛任紐已推薦這封信（《駁異端》3.3.4）。後來優西比烏以希臘文引用了9.1–2和13.1–2，在詢問伊格那丟消息的請求之前停住，並指出這封信使用了《彼得前書》（《教會史》3.36.13–15；4.14.9）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "坡旅甲沒有以書名指出任何一封書信，也沒有為與《提摩太前書》或《以弗所書》相近的措辭標明作者。這些相似之處顯示這些措辭當時已在使用，卻不能顯示保羅寫了這兩封書信。", "關於保羅在腓立比的宣教或他的死，它沒有增添任何獨立的細節。9.2說眾使徒受了苦、如今與主同在，卻沒有說保羅如何、何時或在哪裡去世。", "3.2中譯作“一封信”的希臘文原是複數，但這一點本身不能顯示保羅寫給腓立比信徒的信不止一封。", "10至12章、13章結尾和14章只有拉丁文本存留（優西比烏以希臘文保存了9章和13章的大部分），所以這些部分的確切措辭並不確定，包括13.2用現在式提到與他同在的人，以及11.2把教導歸於保羅的說法。" ], "debate": "統一性與日期：9.1–2把伊格那丟列在如今與主同在的人之中，13.2卻詢問有關他和與他同在之人的消息。因此，P. N. Harrison把文本分成一封較早的附函（13章，或連同14章）和一封約寫於135年的較晚書信（1至12章）。在他之前的Lightfoot和在他之後的Hartog，都主張這是伊格那丟行程後不久寫成的一封信。另有一些較早的批評者則把13章視為插入的文字，《尼西亞前教父著作》譯者的說明認為這種看法頗有說服力。指涉：3.2的複數是指一封信還是數封信。依存關係：與《以弗所書》和《提摩太前書》相似之處是否屬於文學上的借用，以及坡旅甲是否認為這些書信出自保羅。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "兩封信（Harrison）", "statement": "P. N. Harrison（1936）把13章理解為一封較早的附函，在伊格那丟的結局仍未為人所知時，隨他的書信一同寄出；13.2的拉丁文提到那些“現在”與他同在的人。他把1至12章理解為一封約寫於135年的較晚書信，可能是回應類似馬吉安的教導，但另一些人對這種關聯有異議。主張只有一封信的人回應說，坡旅甲可能先得知伊格那丟已死，後來才知道其中的經過。" }, { "label": "3.2的複數是什麼意思", "statement": "這個希臘文複數可能指單獨一封信，正如《尼西亞前教父著作》的譯者所注明、Lightfoot所翻譯的。它也可能反映寫給腓立比的信不止一封，正如一些把正典《腓立比書》分割為數封信的理論所提出的。又或者它籠統地包括保羅寫給帖撒羅尼迦和哥林多的書信，正如該版本中一則加了方括號的編者註所暗示的；保羅在眾教會中誇讚腓立比信徒（11.3），與《帖撒羅尼迦後書》1:4相似。" }, { "label": "11.3的措辭", "statement": "11.3的拉丁文意思晦澀。Lightfoot把它譯為腓立比信徒曾是保羅“起初的書信”；《尼西亞前教父著作》的譯者則譯為他們在他書信的開頭受到稱讚，並與《腓立比書》1:5比較。無論哪種譯法，它都是憶述保羅與腓立比的通信，而沒有增添新的事實。" }, { "label": "共同傳統或共同作者，而非引用", "statement": "4.1中關於貪愛錢財、以及人來到世上時一無所有的說法，呼應當時更廣泛流行的道德格言，因此有些人判斷，依存於《提摩太前書》只是很可能，而非確定。Hans von Campenhausen（1951）提出教牧書信是坡旅甲或他的圈子所寫；若是這樣，這些相似之處顯示的就是共同的來源，而不是對書信的接受，但大多數學者沒有採納此說。" }, { "label": "《以弗所書》被稱為聖經？", "statement": "在只有拉丁文本存留的12.1中，坡旅甲以“正如這些經上所說的”一語，引出《詩篇》4:4和《以弗所書》4:26的措辭。有些人認為這是把《以弗所書》當作聖經。另一些人則認為坡旅甲以為這兩句話都出自舊約，或認為譯者的措辭不足以支持這樣的推論。" }, { "label": "是否知道《使徒行傳》？", "statement": "在1.2中，坡旅甲說到神解開陰間的痛苦，這句話與《使徒行傳》2:24十分相似，正如《尼西亞前教父著作》的譯者所指出的。它可能反映坡旅甲知道《使徒行傳》，也可能反映一個關於復活的早期共同說法，因此並不是《使徒行傳》曾在士每拿流傳的可靠證據。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-polycarp-paul" }, { "id": "first-clement-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 70, "dateTo": 140, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1001", "Gregory-Aland 02 (Codex Alexandrinus), London, British Library, Royal MS 1 D VIII, 5th century; 1 Clement incomplete (a leaf lost near the end)", "Codex Hierosolymitanus 54 (Jerusalem, Holy Sepulchre collection), dated AD 1056, 1 Clement on fols. 51b-70a; formerly no. 456 in the Holy Sepulchre library at Constantinople (Lightfoot 1890)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Corinthians 1:10-12", "1 Corinthians 3:4-6", "2 Corinthians 11:23-25", "Acts 13:50", "Acts 14:19", "Romans 15:24", "Romans 15:28", "Acts 28:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter", "person.apollos" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.6", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.7", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "let us come to those champions who lived very near to our time. Let us set before us the noble examples which belong to our generation.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "By reason of jealousy and envy the greatest and most righteous pillars of the Church were persecuted, and contended even unto death.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 47.1-3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle. What wrote he first unto you in the beginning of the Gospel? Of a truth he charged you in the Spirit concerning himself and Cephas and Apollos, because that even then ye had made parties.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 6.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Unto these men of holy lives was gathered a vast multitude of the elect, who through many indignities and tortures, being the victims of jealousy, set a brave example among ourselves.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 1.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "By reason of the sudden and repeated calamities and reverses which are befalling us, brethren, we consider that we have been somewhat tardy in giving heed to the matters of dispute that have arisen among you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. inscription (salutation)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('the extreme west'), p. 30", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the Epistle to the Romans (xv. 24) S. Paul had stated his intention of visiting Spain. From the language of Clement here it appears that this intention was fulfilled.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('the extreme west'), p. 31", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But it is incredible that a writer living in the metropolis and centre of power and civilization could speak of it as ‘the extreme west,’", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('seven times'), p. 29", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the imprisonment at Philippi is the only one recorded in the Acts before the date of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Clement therefore must have derived his more precise information from some other source.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 27", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the date of this epistle, as determined by internal and external evidence alike, is about A.D. 95 or 96", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 118 (Alexandrian MS)", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In addition to this, a leaf is wanting towards the close of the First Epistle, between fol. 167 and fol. 168,", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 122 (Constantinople MS)", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The date A.M. 6564 is here given according to the Byzantine reckoning, and corresponds to A.D. 1056, which is therefore the date of the completion of the ms.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the time of this Clement, no small dissension having occurred among the brethren at Corinth, the Church in Rome dispatched a most powerful letter to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace, renewing their faith, and declaring the tradition which it had lately received from the apostles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.16", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is extant an epistle of this Clement which is acknowledged to be genuine and is of considerable length and of remarkable merit. He wrote it in the name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth, when a sedition had arisen in the latter church.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea, quoting Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170)", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.23.11", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Today we have passed the Lord's holy day, in which we have read your epistle. From it, whenever we read it, we shall always be able to draw advice, as also from the former epistle, which was written to us through Clement.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea, quoting Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170)", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "§2 in ANF numbering (on Acts)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "by the omission of the passion of Peter, and also of the journey of Paul, when he went from the city — Rome — to Spain.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D15%3Achapter%3D44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste: GA 02 (Codex Alexandrinus)", "locator": "docID 20002 (GA 02; London, British Library, Royal 1 D.VIII; 5th century)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "First Epistle of Clement", "locator": "Q10993949 (P7988 Clavis Patrum Graecorum ID 1001)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q10993949.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Codex Hierosolymitanus", "locator": "Q2724904 (inventory Codex Hierosolymitanus 54; inception 1056)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2724904.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome (2 vols., 2nd ed.)", "year": "1890", "view": "Dated the letter about AD 95 or 96. Read 'the extreme west' as Spain, which implies Paul was released after the Roman custody of Acts. Held that the seven imprisonments must come from information beyond Acts. Rejected identifying the author with the Clement of Philippians 4:3." }, { "author": "Oxford Society of Historical Theology (committee)", "work": "The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "1905", "view": "Judged it beyond doubt that 1 Clement 47 refers to 1 Corinthians, citing the references to Cephas and Apollos and actual quotations from the letter." }, { "author": "George Edmundson", "work": "The Church in Rome in the First Century", "year": "1913", "view": "Dated the letter to the beginning of AD 70, reading the calamities of 1.1 as the troubles of AD 69. Took Clement as a contemporary witness that Paul travelled to the far West after his acquittal." }, { "author": "John A. T. Robinson", "work": "Redating the New Testament", "year": "1976", "view": "Followed Edmundson in placing 1 Clement around AD 70, before the fall of the temple." }, { "author": "Andreas Lindemann", "work": "Paulus im ältesten Christentum", "year": "1979", "view": "Treats 1 Clement as a key early witness to how Paul and his letters, especially 1 Corinthians, were received and used as authority." }, { "author": "L. L. Welborn", "work": "On the Date of First Clement (Biblical Research 29)", "year": "1984", "view": "Argued that the 'calamities' of 1.1 do not show a Domitianic persecution, so the conventional 95-96 date lacks a firm anchor and the letter can be placed only within a broader window." }, { "author": "L. L. Welborn", "work": "Clement, First Epistle of (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 1)", "year": "1992", "view": "Treats the delay formula of 1.1 as a convention of letters on concord and, from internal evidence and second-century references, places the letter between AD 80 and 140." }, { "author": "Odd Magne Bakke", "work": "'Concord and Peace': A Rhetorical Analysis of the First Letter of Clement", "year": "2001", "view": "Reads the letter as deliberative rhetoric urging concord at Corinth. Its examples, including Peter and Paul, serve that argument." }, { "author": "Andrew F. Gregory", "work": "1 Clement and the Writings that Later Formed the New Testament, in The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers (ed. Gregory and Tuckett)", "year": "2005", "view": "Judges 1 Clement's use of 1 Corinthians secure and assesses its possible use of other New Testament writings case by case." }, { "author": "Thomas J. Herron", "work": "Clement and the Early Church of Rome: On the Dating of Clement's First Epistle to the Corinthians", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues for a date around AD 70, before the temple's destruction." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q10993949", "label": "First Epistle of Clement" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q42887", "label": "Clement of Rome (traditional author)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2724904", "label": "Codex Hierosolymitanus" } ], "title": "《革利免一書》論保羅之死及他寫給哥林多的信", "summary": "按通常的定年（約公元95至97年），由羅馬教會寄給哥林多教會的《革利免一書》，是新約以外最早記述保羅生命結局的文本：他經歷監禁、放逐、被石頭打，並在掌權者面前作見證，然後離世。它也是最早指引讀者回頭去看他論哥林多教會派系那封信（《哥林多前書》）的文本。它沒有說明他在哪裡、何時或怎樣去世。", "dating": "通常定於約公元95至97年，即圖密善在位末期或剛結束之後（Lightfoot：約公元95或96年）。各種提議從約公元70年（Edmundson、Robinson、Herron）到晚至約140年（Welborn所定的最晚界限）不等。現存最古老的抄本見於亞歷山大抄本（五世紀）。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "一封以羅馬教會名義寄出的信，把彼得和保羅描繪為屬於寫信者那一代的“鬥士”，他們遭受迫害，“爭戰至死”（《革利免一書》5.1–7）。按通常的定年，一個世代之後的羅馬教會已把保羅之死視為眾所周知的近期歷史。", "它概述保羅的事業和結局：七次帶上鎖鏈、被驅逐流放、被石頭打、在東方和西方傳道、到達“西方的盡頭”、“在掌權者面前”作見證，然後離開世界，“往聖所去”（《革利免一書》5.6–7）。", "它吩咐哥林多信徒“拿起蒙福的保羅的書信”，並提起他曾責備圍繞他自己、彼得和亞波羅而形成的派別（《革利免一書》47.1–3）。這與《哥林多前書》1:10–12相符（參《哥林多前書》3:4–6），顯示羅馬知道這封信，並假定哥林多仍保存著它。", "它所列的苦難，在被石頭打（《哥林多後書》11:25；《使徒行傳》14:19）、多次被囚（《哥林多後書》11:23）以及像《使徒行傳》13:50那樣的被驅逐等方面，與保羅自己所列的清單和《使徒行傳》相符。它所說的七次被囚，比《使徒行傳》所敘述的更多，所以這份清單並不只是《使徒行傳》的摘要。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它沒有提到地點、日期、皇帝或死亡方式。羅馬是從6.1推斷出來的；哥林多的狄奧尼修斯（約170年，見優西比烏《教會史》2.25.8）把彼得和保羅與羅馬聯繫起來，說他們曾在意大利教導，並在同一時間殉道。特土良（約200年）暗示是斬首，優西比烏則把此事放在尼祿治下的羅馬。", "“西方的盡頭”本身不能證明曾有往西班牙的宣教，也不能證明保羅在《使徒行傳》28章之後獲釋。許多人把它理解為西班牙（參《羅馬書》15:24、28），而後來的《穆拉托利殘篇》也說到保羅從羅馬前往西班牙（其年代有爭議）。另一些人則理解為羅馬，或修辭上表示普世的說法；這個短語也可能源自《羅馬書》15章，而非來自獨立的知識。", "這封信沒有提到作者的名字，也沒有給出自己的日期。把它歸於革利免以及約95至97年的定年，依據的是二世紀的見證（哥林多的狄奧尼修斯、赫格西普斯、愛任紐）和從文本所作的推論。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍在討論之中。日期：大多數學者把這封信定於約95至97年，把“突如其來、接連發生的災禍”（1.1）放在圖密善在位時期的背景下理解。Edmundson、Robinson和Herron主張約70年，Welborn則主張較寬的公元80至140年時段。地理：Lightfoot認為“西方的盡頭”必定是指西班牙，這意味著保羅在《使徒行傳》28章之後獲釋。另一些人則理解為羅馬、修辭上的普世說法，或是對《羅馬書》15:24的呼應。細節：“七次帶上鎖鏈”保存的是獨立的傳統，還是一個慣用的數字？“作了見證”是否已經指殉道，還是只指在審訊中作證？許多人也把6.1中“一大群”受害者，與塔西佗所描述的尼祿時期的迫害（《編年史》15.44）聯繫起來，儘管這封信沒有提到任何皇帝的名字。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "較早的日期（約公元70年）", "statement": "Edmundson（1913）主張，1.1所說的災禍與公元69年的動盪相合，這封信寫於公元70年初。Robinson（1976）和Herron（2008）也為約70年的日期辯護。按這種看法，這份見證距離保羅之死只有幾年。" }, { "label": "較寬或較晚的時段", "statement": "Welborn（1984；1992）主張，1.1不一定是指圖密善治下的迫害，所以傳統的日期沒有穩固的依據。按這種看法，這封信可以落在約公元80至140年之間的任何時候，因此它與保羅之死相距多遠並不確定。" }, { "label": "“西方的盡頭”指羅馬或屬修辭", "statement": "有些人認為保羅在《使徒行傳》28章的羅馬拘押期結束時去世。他們把這個短語理解為羅馬，即他自己工作範圍的西端，或理解為與“全世界”相配的修辭對句。Lightfoot列出這些讀法並予以否定，因為身在羅馬的作者很難會把羅馬稱為“極西之地”。" }, { "label": "七是慣用的數字", "statement": "七次被囚這個數字，可能是一份為勸人和睦而寫的示範性苦難清單中所用的約數或象徵數字，而不是根據記錄點算出來的。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-first-clement-paul" }, { "id": "second-peter-pauls-letters", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 60, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P72 (P. Bodmer VIII, Vatican Library; 2 Peter 3:11-18 on pp. 35-36)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "2 Peter 3:15-16", "2 Peter 3:1", "2 Peter 1:14", "Colossians 4:16", "1 Thessalonians 5:27", "Galatians 2:9", "Galatians 2:11-14", "Acts 15:7-11", "1 Corinthians 6:2" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.3.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But we have learned that his extant second Epistle does not belong to the canon; yet, as it has appeared profitable to many, it has been used with the other Scriptures.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.25.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Among the disputed writings, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea (quoting Origen, Commentary on John, Book 5)", "work": "Church History, Book VI", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "has left one acknowledged epistle; perhaps also a second, but this is doubtful.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "Eph. 12.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are associates in the mysteries with Paul, who was sanctified, who obtained a good report, who is worthy of all felicitation; in whose foot-steps I would fain be found treading, when I shall attain unto God; who in every letter maketh mention of you in Christ Jesus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 3.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the blessed and glorious Paul, who when he came among you taught face to face with the men of that day the word which concerneth truth carefully and surely; who also, when he was absent, wrote a letter unto you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as Paul teacheth?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome (the church at Rome to the church at Corinth)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 47.1-2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle. What wrote he first unto you in the beginning of the Gospel?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung, Münster", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (NTVMR), P72", "locator": "docID 10072 (P72; P. Bodmer VIII, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana: 1 Pet 1:1-5:14, 2 Pet 1:1-3:18; P. Bodmer VII, Bibliotheca Bodmeriana: Jude); date III/IV (200-399)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10072&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung, Münster", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (NTVMR), P46", "locator": "docID 10046 (P46; Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, CBL BP II, and Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Library, Inv. 6238; date III (A), 200-225)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata entity: Second Epistle of Peter", "locator": "Q131178", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q131178.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata entity: Papyrus 72", "locator": "Q673569", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q673569.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Michael J. Kruger", "work": "\"The Authenticity of 2 Peter,\" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 42/4", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that the case for pseudonymity is too incomplete to justify the scholarly consensus. On his reading, Paul's letters in 3:16 need mean only the letters known to Peter at the time, and the affectionate yet self-deprecating way Paul is described fits Peter better than a pseudepigrapher." }, { "author": "Richard J. Bauckham", "work": "Jude, 2 Peter (Word Biblical Commentary 50)", "year": "1983", "view": "Treats 2 Peter as pseudepigraphal but holds that the device was not a fraudulent claim to apostolic authority; it claimed to pass on the apostolic message faithfully. He also regards evidence that the Apocalypse of Peter used 2 Peter as ruling out a late date. (View as quoted in Kruger 1999.)" }, { "author": "J. N. D. Kelly", "work": "A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude", "year": "1969", "view": "Regards 2 Peter as pseudonymous and describes that verdict as almost universally held in his day. (As quoted in Kruger 1999.)" }, { "author": "Jörg Frey, Matthijs den Dulk and Jan van der Watt (eds.)", "work": "2 Peter and the Apocalypse of Peter: Towards a New Perspective", "year": "2019", "view": "Frey's lectures argue that 2 Peter depends literarily on the Apocalypse of Peter and read the letter within second-century Christianity. Respondents, including Richard Bauckham, assess the proposal." }, { "author": "Harry Y. Gamble", "work": "The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning", "year": "1985", "view": "States that Hippolytus is the first writer to show any knowledge of 2 Peter (as quoted by Kruger 1999)." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Bibliography-only further reading: the publisher's description says the book uses textual criticism to trace the growth of the Pauline corpus and suggests that Paul himself played a major role in publishing the first collection of his letters. The argument was not checked against the book." }, { "author": "Benjamin P. Laird", "work": "The Pauline Corpus in Early Christianity: Its Formation, Publication, and Circulation", "year": "2022", "view": "Argues that at least three archetypal editions of Paul's letters (10, 13 and 14 letters) were collected and edited as early as the first century. They circulated side by side until 14-letter editions became nearly universal by the fourth century." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q131178", "label": "Second Epistle of Peter" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q673569", "label": "Papyrus 72" } ], "title": "《彼得後書》3:15–16：早期把保羅書信視為一組的提述", "summary": "在《彼得後書》3:15–16中，作者以彼得的身分說話，稱保羅為親愛的弟兄，把保羅的書信說成讀者已經熟悉的一批文字，並暗中把它們與聖經同列。這是顯示保羅的數封書信被一併知曉的最早見證之一，雖然它沒有提到其中任何一封的名字；它的分量取決於有爭議的日期：若是彼得所寫，就是六十年代中期；若是託名之作，則較晚。", "dating": "有爭議：若由彼得所寫，為公元六十年代中期；若是託名之作，則為一世紀末至二世紀（上限150年是為二世紀各種提議所取的整數）。最早的抄本是P72（三或四世紀）；最早指名提到此書而又表示存疑的是俄利根（三世紀，見優西比烏引述）。", "currentLocation": "文本傳承", "establishes": [ "《彼得後書》3:15–16以複數提到保羅的書信，把它們說成讀者已經熟悉的一批文字，而不只是一封寄給他們的信。這預設了保羅數封書信的抄本已流傳到最初的收信人以外；保羅自己曾吩咐把書信念給所有信徒聽，並轉給鄰近的教會（《帖撒羅尼迦前書》5:27；《歌羅西書》4:16），這使這種流傳顯得合理。", "這段經文暗中把保羅的書信與經書歸為一類；大多數讀者這樣理解這個用語，不過少數人把它理解為泛指其他著作。它說這些書信中有些內容不易理解，未受教導、不穩定的讀者會歪曲它們，可見在這段經文寫成時，對保羅的解釋已有爭議。", "它是顯示保羅書信在最初的目的地以外也有人閱讀的幾份早期見證之一。《革利免一書》47章指引哥林多回頭去看《哥林多前書》。坡旅甲（《致腓立比人書》3.2；11.2）知道保羅曾寫信給腓立比，並把《哥林多前書》6:2的一項教導歸於他。伊格那丟（《致以弗所人書》12.2）說保羅在每一封信中都提到以弗所人，這種誇張的說法暗示他知道好幾封。", "這段經文現存最早的抄本是P72（P. Bodmer VIII，現藏梵蒂岡圖書館），INTF把它定於三或四世紀；其第35至36頁載有《彼得後書》3:11–18。作為對照，P46（INTF定於約公元200至225年）是一部包含保羅書信和《希伯來書》的早期冊子抄本，其中沒有《彼得後書》。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它沒有說明作者知道保羅的哪些書信，或知道多少封。因此，它不能證明當時已有經過編輯的書信集、固定的十三封或十四封書信文集，或已經封閉的正典。", "它不能確定本身的作者或日期。如果《彼得後書》是託名之作，這段經文顯示的就是一位較晚的作者怎樣呈現彼得對保羅的看法，而不是彼得自己的話。", "它沒有談到保羅的旅程，也沒有為《使徒行傳》的行程或年表提供獨立的佐證。" ], "debate": "大多數批判學者認為《彼得後書》是託名之作。他們指出：它的文體和詞彙與《彼得前書》不同；它與《猶大書》有密切的平行之處；它早期被接受的過程緩慢而充滿疑慮（俄利根有所遲疑，優西比烏則把它列為有爭議的書卷）；還有正是這處把保羅書信視為一組、並與聖經同列的提述。主張彼得為作者的人回應說，這個複數只需指作者所知道的那些書信，而那種溫和卻坦率的語氣也與彼得相稱。另一項爭論是：《彼得後書》使用了《彼得啟示錄》，還是被它所使用。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "出自彼得，六十年代中期", "statement": "彼得也許借助一位書記，在他於尼祿治下去世前不久寫成此信。這樣，這段經文就顯示保羅的書信在寫成後幾年內已在各教會被抄寫和閱讀，也顯示一位曾與保羅衝突（《加拉太書》2:11–14）、卻也認可向外邦人宣教（《加拉太書》2:9；《使徒行傳》15:7–11）的使徒在稱許他。" }, { "label": "託名之作，使徒之後的時代", "statement": "一位較晚的作者借用彼得的名字，把這封信呈現為彼得的第二封信，也是一份臨別遺言（《彼得後書》3:1；《彼得後書》1:14）。這樣，這段經文所見證的，就是在眾使徒之後的一代，保羅的數封書信已具有權威地位，同時也見證人們記憶中彼得與保羅意見一致的圖像。" }, { "label": "二世紀，晚於《彼得啟示錄》", "statement": "Jörg Frey主張《彼得後書》依存於《彼得啟示錄》。這會把這封信放在進入二世紀相當一段時間之後，因此它見證的是保羅書信在那個時期、而不是在使徒時代所受的對待。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-second-peter-pauls-letters" }, { "id": "ignatius-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 105, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1025.1 (Ignatius, Ad Ephesios)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 9:15", "Acts 10:41", "Acts 19:1-41", "Acts 20:17-38", "Acts 28:14-31", "Romans 1:7-15", "1 Corinthians 1:18-20", "1 Corinthians 4:13", "1 Corinthians 6:9-10", "1 Corinthians 15:8-9", "1 Corinthians 15:32", "1 Corinthians 16:8", "Ephesians 1:1", "1 Timothy 1:3", "2 Timothy 1:18", "2 Timothy 4:12" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.rome", "place.antioch", "place.syria" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are associates in the mysteries with Paul, who was sanctified, who obtained a good report, who is worthy of all felicitation; in whose foot-steps I would fain be found treading, when I shall attain unto God; who in every letter maketh mention of you in Christ Jesus.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Romans", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I do not enjoin you, as Peter and Paul did. They were Apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am a slave to this very hour.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Romans", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 9.2 (echo of 1 Cor 15:8-9)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But for myself I am ashamed to be called one of them; for neither am I worthy, being the very last of them and an untimely birth: but I have found mercy that I should be some one, if so be I shall attain unto God.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 18.1 (echo of 1 Cor 1:18-20; 4:13)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "My spirit is made an offscouring for the Cross, which is a stumbling-block to them that are unbelievers, but to us salvation and life eternal.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Smyrnaeans", "locator": "Ign. Smyrn. 3.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And after His resurrection He [both] ate with them and drank with them as one in the flesh", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians, shorter (middle) recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12 (shorter version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.ii.xii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are initiated into the mysteries of the Gospel with Paul, the holy, the martyred, the deservedly most happy, at whose feet", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (long recension, 4th-century revision)", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians, longer recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12 (longer version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.ii.xii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "with Paul, the holy, the martyred, inasmuch as he was “a chosen vessel;”", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (Syriac abridgment)", "work": "Epistle to the Romans, Syriac version, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4 (Syriac version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.xii.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I do not, like Peter and Paul, issue orders unto you.", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (long recension, 4th-century revision)", "work": "Epistle to the Romans, longer recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4 (longer version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.v.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "They were apostles of Jesus Christ, but I am the very least [of believers]:", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "ANF editors (A. Roberts, J. Donaldson; A. C. Coxe)", "work": "Introductory Note to the Epistles of Ignatius, ANF 1", "locator": "ANF 1, Introductory Note to the Epistles of Ignatius", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of the seven Epistles which are acknowledged by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., iii. 36), we possess two Greek recensions, a shorter and a longer. It is plain that one or other of these exhibits a corrupt text", "role": "early-study", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Ecclesiastical History", "locator": "HE 3.36.10", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And when he had left Smyrna he wrote again from Troas to the Philadelphians and to the church of Smyrna; and particularly to Polycarp, who presided over the latter church.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "locator": "Pol. Phil. 13.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The letters of Ignatius which were sent to us by him, and others as many as we had by us, we send unto you, according as ye gave charge; the which are subjoined to this letter; from which ye will be able to gain great advantage.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "locator": "Haer. 5.28.4 (quoting Ign. Rom. 4.1)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103528.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As a certain man of ours said, when he was condemned to the wild beasts because of his testimony with respect to God: I am the wheat of Christ, and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of God.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians", "locator": "Q65051525 (P7988 CPG 1025.1)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q65051525.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Letters of Ignatius", "locator": "Q350126", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q350126.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Theodor Zahn", "work": "Ignatius von Antiochien", "year": "1873", "view": "Defended the authenticity of the seven letters in the middle recension. Schoedel credits Zahn and Lightfoot as the basis of today's majority view." }, { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part II: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp", "year": "1885 (2nd ed. 1889)", "view": "Defended the middle recension as Ignatius's genuine letters, treating the long recension as a later expansion and the Syriac as an abridgment. The 1891 Lightfoot-Harmer translation quoted here derives from this edition." }, { "author": "William Cureton", "work": "The Ancient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans", "year": "1845", "view": "Argued that the three abridged Syriac letters come closest to what Ignatius actually wrote. Later scholarship has largely rejected this." }, { "author": "Robert Joly", "work": "Le dossier d'Ignace d'Antioche", "year": "1979", "view": "Disputes the authenticity of the seven letters, treating them as a later composition. This is the main modern minority position, and Schoedel cites it." }, { "author": "William R. Schoedel", "work": "Ignatius of Antioch: A Commentary on the Letters of Ignatius of Antioch (Hermeneia)", "year": "1985", "view": "Standard critical commentary. It accepts the middle recension as Ignatius's own work and reads it against his journey under guard from Syria to Rome." }, { "author": "William R. Schoedel", "work": "\"Ignatius, Epistles of,\" Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 3", "year": "1992", "view": "The middle recension is generally accepted as authentic. The long recension is a fourth-century revision with added spurious letters, and the Syriac 'short recension' is only an abridgment. The letters fit the second half of Trajan's reign or a little later." }, { "author": "Paul Foster", "work": "\"The Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch and the Writings that later formed the New Testament,\" in A. F. Gregory and C. M. Tuckett (eds.), The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "2005", "view": "Assesses, writing by writing, which texts later in the New Testament Ignatius knew." }, { "author": "Timothy D. Barnes", "work": "The Date of Ignatius (The Expository Times 120)", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues that Ignatius knew the writings of the Gnostic teacher Ptolemaeus and that the letters were probably written in the 140s, treating Eusebius's placement of Ignatius under Trajan as not authoritative." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44170", "label": "Ignatius of Antioch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q350126", "label": "Letters of Ignatius" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q65051525", "label": "Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7811305", "label": "Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans" } ], "title": "安提阿的伊格那丟在書信中論及保羅", "summary": "安提阿的伊格那丟的書信按慣例定於約公元110年，是他在押解前往羅馬途中寫成的。這些書信顯示保羅很早就作為使徒和書信作者受到尊崇，卻沒有為他的生平經歷增添新的事實。在伊格那丟《致以弗所人書》12.2中，他稱以弗所人為保羅的同領奧秘者，又說保羅“在每封信中”都提到他們。在《致羅馬人書》4.3中，他把能夠發號施令的使徒彼得和保羅，與身為死囚的自己作對比。", "dating": "按慣例定於約公元105至117年（圖拉真在位晚期）或稍後；Barnes（2008）主張140年代。dateFrom和dateTo只涵蓋書信屬真作的看法；按偽作假說，這些書信應置於二世紀較後的時期。", "currentLocation": "文本傳統", "establishes": [ "在多數學者接受的中篇本中，伊格那丟稱保羅為已成聖、“配得一切稱慶”的人，盼望自己被人看見是走在他的腳蹤上，並說保羅“在每封信中”都提到以弗所人（伊格那丟《致以弗所人書》12.2）。可見一位敘利亞的主教已經知道保羅是與以弗所關係密切的書信作者；按通常的讀法，也知道他是好幾封書信的作者。", "伊格那丟《致羅馬人書》4.3把彼得和保羅並提，稱他們是可以向羅馬教會發出命令的使徒；身為被定罪囚犯的伊格那丟則不肯這樣做。這段文字見於現存全部三種文本形式：敘利亞文節本、中篇本和長篇本。", "伊格那丟沿用《哥林多前書》的措辭。《致以弗所人書》18.1呼應《哥林多前書》1:18-20和4:13；《致羅馬人書》9.2自稱“最末的一個”和“不合時而生的”，呼應《哥林多前書》15:8-9；《致以弗所人書》16.1和《致非拉鐵非人書》3.3呼應《哥林多前書》6:9-10。綜合來看，在他所知道的保羅書信中，《哥林多前書》是最清楚的一例。", "這些書信本身很早就有來自外部的見證。坡旅甲（《致腓立比人書》13.2）提到收集並轉送伊格那丟的書信。愛任紐（《駁異端》5.28.4）引用伊格那丟《致羅馬人書》4.1而沒有指名，優西比烏（《教會史》3.36.12）則把這段引文歸於伊格那丟。優西比烏在《教會史》3.36.5-10中逐一列出構成中篇本的七封書信。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不是對《使徒行傳》的獨立核證。伊格那丟從未清楚引用《使徒行傳》。最接近的平行之處是《致士每拿人書》3.3與《使徒行傳》10:41，可能出自共同傳統，並不表示他讀過《使徒行傳》。“被選的器皿”一語（《使徒行傳》9:15）只在四世紀的長篇本中才進入《致以弗所人書》12章。他筆下保羅與以弗所的關係，並不是《使徒行傳》19至20章的另一個獨立見證。", "“在每封信中”不能按字面理解，因為只有部分歸於保羅名下的書信提到以弗所（例如《哥林多前書》15:32；16:8；《提摩太前書》1:3；《提摩太後書》1:18；4:12）。這句話不能顯示伊格那丟擁有多少封保羅書信或哪幾封，也不能確定《以弗所書》1:1原本是否提到以弗所。", "《致羅馬人書》4.3沒有說彼得和保羅死於羅馬或創立了羅馬教會，也沒有說他們發出過什麼命令；這些都是後來的推論和傳統。《致以弗所人書》12.2中有一個詞，Lightfoot譯作“得了好名聲的”，Roberts-Donaldson卻譯作“殉道的”，所以它不是保羅殉道的可靠證據。" ], "debate": "多數學者追隨Zahn和Lightfoot，接受七封信的中篇本為真作，並把它定於圖拉真在位晚期或稍後；Barnes主張140年代。少數學者，尤其是Joly，視這些書信為後來的偽作。關於《致以弗所人書》12.2，讀者會問：“在每封信中”是誇張說法，是指“在整封信中”，還是反映一套已知的保羅書信集；形容保羅的那個詞是指“有充分見證的”還是“殉道的”；以及除《哥林多前書》以外，伊格那丟實際用過多少封書信。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "後來的偽作", "statement": "這七封信是二世紀後期的托名作品（Joly 1979是最著名的論述）。按這種看法，《致以弗所人書》12.2和《致羅馬人書》4.3仍顯示二世紀的人記憶中的保羅是怎樣的，但它們不再是他死後一兩代人之內的見證。" }, { "label": "誇張說法與有限的認識", "statement": "“在每封信中”是修辭上的誇張，伊格那丟所知道的可能不比《哥林多前書》多多少。一些聽來像出自保羅的語句，可能來自教會的口傳傳統，而不是來自閱讀成文的書信。" }, { "label": "敘利亞文短本為原貌", "statement": "Cureton（1845）主張只有三封經節略的敘利亞文書信是真作。敘利亞文的《致以弗所人書》沒有第12章，所以按他的看法，“在每封信中”那段話並非伊格那丟本人的話。後來的學術研究大多把敘利亞文本視為中篇本的節略。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-ignatius-paul" }, { "id": "muratorian-fragment", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 170, "dateTo": 400, "corpusReferences": [ "CLA III 352" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 1:1-2", "Colossians 4:14", "Colossians 4:16", "Romans 15:24-28", "1 Corinthians 1:10-12", "Galatians 5:2-6", "1 Timothy 1:1-2", "2 Timothy 1:1-2", "Titus 1:1-4", "Philemon 1:1-3" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.timothy", "person.titus", "person.philemon", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.spain", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.philippi", "place.colossae", "place.galatia", "place.thessalonica" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 3, on Philemon, Titus and Timothy (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy, in simple personal affection and love indeed; but yet these are hallowed in the esteem of the Catholic Church, and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 3, on Laodiceans and Alexandrians (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion; and there are also several others which cannot be received into the Catholic Church", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 2, on Acts and Theophilus (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover, the Acts of all the Apostles are comprised by Luke in one book, and addressed to the most excellent Theophilus, because these different events took place when he was present himself", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 2, on Peter's passion and Paul's journey to Spain (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "by the omission of the passion of Peter, and also of the journey of Paul, when he went from the city—Rome—to Spain.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 4 (ANF 5:604)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/caius/fragments/anf05.v.iii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Pastor, moreover, did Hermas write very recently in our times in the city of Rome, while his brother bishop Pius sat in the chair of the Church of Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "ANF vol. 5 editors (editorial headnote)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5, note to 'Canon Muratorianus'", "year": "1886", "locator": "ANF 5:603, headnote (CCEL note 4977)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/caius/fragments/anf05.v.iii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "was discovered by Muratori in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and published by him in his Antiquitates Italicæ in 1740. This manuscript belongs to the seventh or eighth century.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "work": "Against Marcion, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "work": "Against Marcion, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.17", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We have it on the true tradition of the Church, that this epistle was sent to the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans. Marcion, however, was very desirous of giving it the new title (of Laodicean), as if he were extremely accurate in investigating such a point.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Muratorian fragment", "locator": "Q692665", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q692665.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Albert C. Sundberg Jr.", "work": "Canon Muratori: A Fourth Century List (Harvard Theological Review 66)", "year": "1973", "view": "Dates the list to the 4th century and places its origin in the East rather than Rome." }, { "author": "Everett Ferguson", "work": "Canon Muratori: Date and Provenance (Studia Patristica 17)", "year": "1982", "view": "Answers Sundberg. Argues that the absence of Hebrews, the 2nd-century heresies named and other features point to a western, late-2nd-century setting." }, { "author": "Geoffrey Mark Hahneman", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon", "year": "1992", "view": "Builds out Sundberg's case and dates the list c. 375, with a Syrian or Palestinian provenance." }, { "author": "Charles E. Hill", "work": "The Debate over the Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon (Westminster Theological Journal 57)", "year": "1995", "view": "Rebuts Hahneman's reasons for setting aside the fragment's own claim about Hermas and Pius, and favours the earlier date." }, { "author": "Joseph Verheyden", "work": "The Canon Muratori: A Matter of Dispute (in The Biblical Canons, BETL 163)", "year": "2003", "view": "Finds none of the Sundberg-Hahneman arguments for a 4th-century eastern origin convincing. Places the author in the West at the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century." }, { "author": "Lee Martin McDonald", "work": "The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority", "year": "2007", "view": "Leans toward Sundberg and Hahneman and favours a date after the mid-4th century in the East, while cautioning that this cannot be insisted on." }, { "author": "Eckhard J. Schnabel", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment: The State of Research (Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 57)", "year": "2014", "view": "Surveys the research, judges the case for a 4th-century date unconvincing, and treats the fragment as written c. 200." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment as Roman Fake (Novum Testamentum 60)", "year": "2018", "view": "Argues that the fragment is a late-antique forgery made to look as if it came from the 2nd century." }, { "author": "Christophe Guignard", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment as a Late Antique Fake? An Answer to C. K. Rothschild (Revue des sciences religieuses 93)", "year": "2019", "view": "Rejects the forgery thesis. Holds that the fragment most likely dates from the second half of the 2nd century, or at the latest the early 3rd." }, { "author": "Johann Peter Kirsch", "work": "Muratorian Canon, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 10", "year": "1911", "view": "Says the codex came from Bobbio and is now in the Ambrosiana (Cod. J 101 sup.), dates it to the 8th century, places the text at Rome c. 180-200, probably translated from Greek, and notes that a few sentences survive in Monte Cassino codices of Paul's letters." }, { "author": "E. A. Lowe", "work": "Codices Latini Antiquiores, Part III: Italy, Ancona-Novara", "year": "1938", "view": "Catalogues the Milan codex as CLA III 352: a mid-8th-century uncial, probably written at Bobbio." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q692665", "label": "Muratorian fragment" } ], "title": "《穆拉托利殘篇》中的保羅書信目錄", "summary": "《穆拉托利殘篇》是一份拉丁文新約書卷目錄，通常定於約170至200年（也有人主張四世紀）。它接受十三封保羅書信，包括《腓利門書》、《提多書》和兩封寫給提摩太的書信，並把“致老底嘉人”和“致亞歷山大人”的書信斥為偽作。它的完整文本只存於米蘭一份八世紀中葉的抄本。它顯示的是保羅書信如何被接受，而不是誰寫了這些書信。", "dating": "文本很可能寫成於二世紀後期（約170至200年，最遲在三世紀初）。少數學者把它定於四世紀，近期也有一種論點認為它是古代晚期的偽作。dateTo設為400，涵蓋四世紀的看法，但不涵蓋偽作論。唯一的完整抄本屬八世紀中葉（Lowe，CLA III 352：“VIII med”）。", "currentLocation": "米蘭安波羅修圖書館（I 101 sup.，亦引作J 101 sup.）", "establishes": [ "現存文本接受十三封以保羅之名流傳的書信：有寫給七個教會的書信（哥林多人、以弗所人、腓立比人、歌羅西人、加拉太人、帖撒羅尼迦人、羅馬人），其中寫給哥林多人和帖撒羅尼迦人的各有第二封，另加寫給腓利門的一封、寫給提多的一封和寫給提摩太的兩封。殘篇隱含這個數目，卻從未明說；它也沒有提到《希伯來書》。", "它形容寫給腓利門、提多和提摩太的書信是私人書信，但大公（即普世）教會仍視之為神聖，並用於教會紀律。它把“致老底嘉人”和“致亞歷山大人”的書信斥為與馬吉安異端有關、假託保羅之名的偽作。因此，作者在被接受的保羅書信與托名書信之間劃了界線。", "它把“所有使徒的行傳”歸於路加，即保羅帶在身邊作同伴的那位醫生，並說此書是寫給提阿非羅的。它解釋《使徒行傳》為何沒有提到彼得之死，也沒有提到保羅從羅馬往西班牙的行程：它聲稱路加只記錄自己親眼見到的事。", "唯一的完整抄本是一部出自博比奧圖書館的八世紀拉丁文安色爾字體冊子本，現藏米蘭安波羅修圖書館。Lowe的CLA判斷它抄於八世紀中葉，很可能寫於博比奧。穆拉托利於1740年把它出版（ANF導言）。另有幾句也保存在蒙特卡西諾的保羅書信抄本中。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它顯示的是：在這份目錄那仍有爭議的年代和地點，作者及其群體把哪些書信接受為保羅的書信。它本身不能確定教牧書信或其他任何有爭議書信的作者是誰。", "它說保羅從羅馬往西班牙去，這是在報告作者所持的一種信念，用來解釋《使徒行傳》的結尾。它不是這次行程確曾發生的獨立證據。", "它不是一世紀的見證，其年代和來源也有爭議，所以不能證明公元200年時已有封閉的正典。它的歷史評述也流於公式化：它說保羅效法“他的前輩約翰”寫信給七個教會，這並不是可靠的年代學。" ], "debate": "二世紀後期的定年主要基於兩點：一是殘篇聲稱黑馬在二世紀中葉羅馬主教庇護任內，“就在最近、在我們的時代”寫成《牧人書》；二是目錄所拒絕的群體（馬吉安、瓦倫廷、孟他努派）。Sundberg（1973）和Hahneman（1992）主張這是一份四世紀的東方目錄，Rothschild（2018）則主張它是古代晚期的偽作。Ferguson、Hill、Verheyden、Schnabel和Guignard回應說，約200年的西方背景最為吻合。Schnabel在2014年的綜述中判斷，對Hahneman的回應大多持批評態度。1886年ANF譯本譯作“針對馬吉安的異端而寫”的那句話，較常見的理解是：這些書信是為支持馬吉安的異端而偽造的。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "四世紀的東方目錄", "statement": "Sundberg和Hahneman對“就在最近、在我們的時代”作寬鬆的理解，並把這份文本歸入四世紀的正典目錄之列。Hahneman把它定於約375年的敘利亞或巴勒斯坦。按這種看法，這份目錄顯示的是四世紀對同樣十三封保羅書信的接受，而不是二世紀的接受。" }, { "label": "古代晚期的偽作", "statement": "Rothschild主張這份目錄寫成較晚，卻被刻意寫得像早期作品，因此提到庇護只是一種文學手法。Guignard回應說，阿奎萊亞的克羅瑪提烏斯（卒於407年）已使用這份文本，而且希臘文原本的存在，很難與西方晚期偽作之說相容。" }, { "label": "被拒書信的身份", "statement": "有人認為被拒的“老底嘉人書”，就是馬吉安為教會稱為《以弗所書》的那封信所起的標題（特土良《駁馬吉安》5.17）。另一些人則想到另一封托名書信，例如後世拉丁文聖經中所收、篇幅短小的拉丁文《致老底嘉人書》。“致亞歷山大人”的書信不詳，把它等同於《希伯來書》只是推測。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-muratorian-fragment" }, { "id": "dionysius-gaius-martyrdom", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 165, "dateTo": 326, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:1-11", "Acts 22:25-28", "Acts 28:16", "Acts 28:30-31", "1 Corinthians 1:12", "1 Corinthians 3:6-10", "1 Corinthians 4:15", "Romans 1:13", "Romans 15:20-23", "Romans 15:24-28", "Philippians 1:25-26", "Philippians 2:24", "Philemon 1:22", "2 Timothy 4:6-8", "2 Timothy 4:16-18" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth", "place.italia", "place.spain" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.6-7", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But I can show the trophies of the apostles. For if you will go to the Vatican or to the Ostian way, you will find the trophies of those who laid the foundations of this church.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For both of them planted and likewise taught us in our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Thus after he had made his defense it is said that the apostle was sent again upon the ministry of preaching, and that upon coming to the same city a second time he suffered martyrdom.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.23.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is extant also another epistle written by Dionysius to the Romans, and addressed to Soter, who was bishop at that time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.20.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There has reached us also a dialogue of Caius, a very learned man, which was held at Rome under Zephyrinus, with Proclus, who contended for the Phrygian heresy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, on Peter and Paul", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, on the apostle John", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "ANF editors", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics, ANF vol. 3, footnote", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, ANF footnote on 'a death like John's' (CCEL note 2235)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.xxxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Baptist’s.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.22.2 (CCEL footnote 474), opening", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Eusebius is the first writer to record the release of Paul from a first, and his martyrdom during a second Roman imprisonment.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.22.2 (CCEL footnote 474), on the second imprisonment", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Scholars are greatly divided as to the fact of a second imprisonment. Nearly all that defend the genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles assume a second imprisonment", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.25.8 (CCEL footnote 555)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Whatever may be the truth of Dionysius’ report as to Peter’s martyrdom at Rome, he is almost certainly in error in speaking as he does of Peter’s work in Corinth.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.25.8 (CCEL footnote 556)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "allows some margin in time and does not necessarily imply the same day. Dionysius is the first one to connect the deaths of Peter and Paul chronologically, but later it became quite the custom.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "De bapt. 17", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But if the writings which wrongly go under Paul's name, claim Thecla's example as a licence for women's teaching and baptizing, let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "1 Clem. 5", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Caius (early 3rd-century Christian author)", "locator": "Q2441699", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2441699.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place record: Via Ostiensis", "locator": "390205932", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/390205932/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Brent D. Shaw", "work": "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution (Journal of Roman Studies 105)", "year": "2015", "view": "Disputes the conventional view that a state persecution under Nero after the fire of 64 included the deaths of Peter and Paul. He takes the Tacitus passage to be probably genuine but argues it reflects the ideas of Tacitus's own day." }, { "author": "Christopher P. Jones", "work": "The Historicity of the Neronian Persecution: A Response to Brent Shaw (New Testament Studies 63)", "year": "2017", "view": "Argues that there are no grounds for doubting Tacitus's report of the persecution. He notes that the later sources dating the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul to Nero's reign have no bearing on whether Tacitus is accurate." }, { "author": "Otto Zwierlein", "work": "Petrus in Rom: Die literarischen Zeugnisse", "year": "2009", "view": "Argues that the literary evidence does not show Peter was ever in Rome, martyred or buried there. He treats the Roman Peter tradition, including its pairing of Peter with Paul, as a second-century development." }, { "author": "Oscar Cullmann", "work": "Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (German original 1952)", "year": "1953", "view": "Judges Peter's journey to Rome and martyrdom there under Nero probable from the literary evidence, but holds that the Vatican excavations do not settle where his grave was." }, { "author": "J. M. C. Toynbee and J. B. Ward-Perkins", "work": "The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations", "year": "1956", "view": "Describe the Vatican excavations and identify the modest mid-second-century shrine under St Peter's with the Vatican 'trophy' Gaius mentions." }, { "author": "Sean McDowell", "work": "The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus", "year": "2015", "view": "Assesses the martyrdom traditions apostle by apostle. Finds very good historical reason to think Paul died as a martyr in the mid-to-late 60s, and judges his beheading more probable than not but less certain." }, { "author": "M. R. James", "work": "The Apocryphal New Testament", "year": "1924", "view": "Translates the Martyrdom of Paul from the Acts of Paul, in which Nero orders Paul beheaded." }, { "author": "John Chapman", "work": "St. Dionysius, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 5", "year": "1909", "view": "Dates Dionysius of Corinth about 170, because he wrote to Pope Soter, whom it dates c. 168-176 (noting Harnack's 165-67 to 173-5)." }, { "author": "John Chapman", "work": "Tertullian, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 14", "year": "1912", "view": "Dates the Prescription against Heretics to about 200." }, { "author": "Francis Joseph Bacchus", "work": "Eusebius of Caesarea, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 5", "year": "1909", "view": "Holds that the Church History grew in stages: the ninth book was finished between 312 and 314, and the tenth was completed between the defeat of Licinius in 323 and the disgrace of Crispus in 326." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q679837", "label": "Dionysius of Corinth" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2441699", "label": "Caius (Gaius), early 3rd-century Christian author" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1235854", "label": "Church History (Eusebius)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q142999", "label": "Eusebius of Caesarea" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q174929", "label": "Tertullian" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "463398874", "label": "Vaticanus Mons" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "390205932", "label": "Via Ostiensis" } ], "title": "狄奧尼修斯、蓋烏斯和特土良論保羅死於羅馬", "summary": "保羅在羅馬被處決一事，依據的是教會傳統，而不是《使徒行傳》；《使徒行傳》在他的審訊有結果之前就結束了。哥林多的狄奧尼修斯（約170年）說，彼得和保羅大約在同一時期殉道。羅馬的蓋烏斯（約200年）指出使徒在梵蒂岡和奧斯提亞大道上的“勝利紀念物”，特土良（約200年）則暗示斬首。更早的主要見證《革利免一書》5章（通常定於約96年）沒有說出地點。優西比烏（四世紀初）最早明確說出曾有獲釋和第二次監禁。", "dating": "狄奧尼修斯約公元170年（在主教索特任內寫給羅馬教會的信）；蓋烏斯和特土良約公元200年；優西比烏的《教會史》分階段編成，在320年代完成。狄奧尼修斯和蓋烏斯的話只作為引文保存在優西比烏的著作中。", "currentLocation": "文本傳統", "establishes": [ "哥林多主教狄奧尼修斯在主教索特任內（約公元170年）寫信給羅馬教會。他說彼得和保羅在哥林多栽種和教導，又一同在意大利教導，並“在同一時候”殉道（《教會史》2.25.8；此信的年代見4.23.9）。McGiffert指出，這個希臘文說法容許時間上有些出入，不一定指同一天。", "蓋烏斯是約公元200年主教則斐琳任內活躍的羅馬教會人士。他在與孟他努派（“弗呂家異端”）的普羅克魯斯辯論時說，他能指出使徒在梵蒂岡和奧斯提亞大道上的“勝利紀念物”（《教會史》2.25.6-7；6.20.3）。可見到約公元200年，羅馬教會已把使徒與兩處具體的紀念地聯繫起來。", "特土良《論異端的時效》36（約公元200年）說，保羅在羅馬“以像約翰那樣的死”贏得冠冕；ANF編者註明這是指施洗約翰的死，也就是斬首。同一句話又說使徒約翰被投入滾油中而毫髮無損，所以這是羅馬的傳統，而非經查證的事實。保羅的公民身份（《使徒行傳》22:25-28）也會令人預期他被斬首，所以這個細節可能是推論出來的。", "優西比烏在記述尼祿的迫害時，說保羅在羅馬被斬首（《教會史》2.25.5）。他也記載保羅在申辯後獲釋，第二次到羅馬時殉道（2.22.2-8）；他以“據說”引入這說法，並根據《提摩太後書》4章加以論證。McGiffert（1890）認為他是第一位明確記載此事的作者。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這些見證都沒有交代罪名、審訊或處決地點；除了把他的死與彼得或尼祿掛鉤之外，也都沒有為他的死定年。狄奧尼修斯和蓋烏斯的話，只以優西比烏選錄的摘錄傳到我們手中。特土良知道一部關於保羅和特克拉的作品，並斥之為偽作；這部作品通常被認為就是《保羅行傳》，其中的〈殉道記〉也說尼祿將保羅斬首；因此不能排除兩者出於共同傳統。", "蓋烏斯沒有說這些“勝利紀念物”是墳墓，也沒有說哪一處屬於哪一位使徒。把它們理解為埋葬地點，是優西比烏的解釋。把奧斯提亞大道歸給保羅，來自羅馬的傳統，而不是蓋烏斯的話。", "在優西比烏之前，沒有作者明言曾有獲釋和第二次監禁；不過《革利免一書》5章（“西方的極遠邊界”）和《穆拉托利殘篇》所說的西班牙之行，可能暗示《使徒行傳》28章之後仍有工作。這個重構依賴於《提摩太後書》出自保羅之手，並寫於《使徒行傳》之後，而這兩點都有爭議。", "狄奧尼修斯並非每個細節都可靠。他說彼得和保羅一同栽種了哥林多和羅馬的教會，這與《使徒行傳》18:1-11以及保羅自己的書信（《哥林多前書》3:6-10；4:15；《羅馬書》1:13；15:20-23）難以協調。McGiffert認為，這傳統中關於哥林多的部分，很可能部分源於《哥林多前書》1:12所說屬彼得的一派。" ], "debate": "多數歷史學家接受保羅死於羅馬。懸而未決的問題是，每項見證各自能獨立補充多少。蓋烏斯的“勝利紀念物”可能標示墳墓，也可能標示處決地點。獲釋和第二次監禁之說能否成立，很大程度取決於《提摩太後書》是否為保羅本人的書信、並寫於《使徒行傳》之後，而許多學者對此存疑。Brent Shaw質疑彼得和保羅死於尼祿治下的一場迫害。Christopher Jones為塔西佗對那場迫害的記載辯護。Otto Zwierlein質疑彼得曾到過羅馬，這影響到狄奧尼修斯關於兩人一同殉道的說法。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "獲釋、再度宣教、死於尼祿治下", "statement": "保羅在《使徒行傳》28:30-31所說的兩年之後獲釋，並繼續工作，或許在東方，或許在西班牙（《羅馬書》15:24、28），之後在60年代中期於尼祿治下再次被捕並被處決。這是優西比烏的記述，通常為接受《提摩太後書》出自保羅的人所持。如果《腓立比書》和《腓利門書》寫於羅馬的拘押期間，保羅在這些書信中期望獲釋（《腓立比書》1:25-26；2:24；《腓利門書》1:22）。" }, { "label": "在羅馬只有一次拘押，並以死告終", "statement": "按這種看法，保羅從未獲釋。《使徒行傳》28章所描述的拘押以他被處決告終，第二次監禁是從教牧書信推論出來的。McGiffert（1890）已指出，否認教牧書信真確性的學者，大多也否定有第二次監禁。" }, { "label": "死於羅馬，但沒有尼祿的迫害", "statement": "Brent Shaw主張，塔西佗關於尼祿迫害基督徒的記述，反映的是塔西佗本人時代的觀念。若是如此，使徒之死與尼祿之間的聯繫可能是後來建構的。Christopher Jones回應說，沒有理由懷疑塔西佗的記載。" }, { "label": "彼得在羅馬殉道是後來的建構", "statement": "Otto Zwierlein主張彼得從未到過羅馬。他把彼得與保羅並提的傳統（包括狄奧尼修斯的信）視為二世紀的文學發展。這對兩人一同殉道之說的影響，大於對保羅死於羅馬之說的影響，因為《使徒行傳》本身就把保羅帶到那裡。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-dionysius-gaius-martyrdom" }, { "id": "papyrus-46", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 175, "dateTo": 250, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P46", "INTF Liste docID 10046", "Chester Beatty Library BP II", "University of Michigan Library inv. 6238" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 15:33", "Romans 14:24-26", "Romans 16:1-23", "Ephesians 1:1", "1 Thessalonians 5:23-28" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.phoebe", "person.priscilla", "person.aquila" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.galatia", "place.philippi", "place.colossae", "place.thessalonica", "place.cenchreae", "place.egypt" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF NTVMR, page-level record)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (INTF docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "chester-beatty-library", "work": "Chester Beatty online exhibition page: New Testament (label for the Pauline Epistles leaf)", "locator": "CBL BP II f.61", "url": "https://chesterbeatty.ie/exhibitions/fragments/new-testament/", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript record: P46", "locator": "GA P46", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P46", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 20r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=210&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 21v", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=240&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 75r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.14.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He says that the Epistle to the Hebrews is the work of Paul, and that it was written to the Hebrews in the Hebrew language; but that Luke translated it carefully and published it for the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.20.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He mentions only thirteen epistles of the holy apostle, not counting that to the Hebrews with the others. And unto our day there are some among the Romans who do not consider this a work of the apostle.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Papyrus 46", "locator": "Q1513469", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513469", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Frederic G. Kenyon", "work": "The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, Fasciculus III Supplement: Pauline Epistles", "year": "1936", "view": "Edited the Chester Beatty leaves and dated the codex to the early third century (the first half of that century). Using its page numbering, he reconstructed it as a single-quire codex and judged that the lost final leaves were too few to hold the Pastoral Letters." }, { "author": "Henry A. Sanders", "work": "A Third-Century Papyrus Codex of the Epistles of Paul", "year": "1935", "view": "Edited the University of Michigan leaves and, as the title states, dated the codex to the third century." }, { "author": "Young Kyu Kim", "work": "Palaeographical Dating of P⁴⁶ to the Later First Century (Biblica 69)", "year": "1988", "view": "Argued from comparative handwriting that the codex was copied in the later first century. Most palaeographers have not accepted this." }, { "author": "Bruce W. Griffin", "work": "The Paleographical Dating of P-46", "year": "1996", "view": "Rejected Kim's first-century date and argued for a range of roughly AD 175-225." }, { "author": "Philip W. Comfort and David P. Barrett", "work": "The Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts", "year": "2001", "view": "Favoured an earlier date, around the middle of the second century." }, { "author": "Pasquale Orsini and Willy Clarysse", "work": "Early New Testament Manuscripts and Their Dates: A Critique of Theological Palaeography (Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 88)", "year": "2012", "view": "Argued that several early New Testament papyri had been dated too early and proposed more cautious ranges. They placed this codex in the early third century, in line with the INTF catalogue." }, { "author": "Jeremy Duff", "work": "P⁴⁶ and the Pastorals: A Misleading Consensus? (New Testament Studies 44)", "year": "1998", "view": "Argued that the scribe was fitting more text onto later pages and could have added leaves, so the codex may have been planned to include the Pastoral Letters." }, { "author": "T. W. Manson", "work": "St. Paul's Letter to the Romans - and Others", "year": "1948", "view": "Used the papyrus's placing of the doxology after Romans 15 to argue that a fifteen-chapter form went to Rome and that chapter 16 belonged to a copy sent to Ephesus." }, { "author": "Harry Y. Gamble", "work": "The Textual History of the Letter to the Romans", "year": "1977", "view": "Argued that the sixteen-chapter letter is original and the shorter forms are secondary, treating the doxology as a later addition." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1513469", "label": "Papyrus 46" } ], "title": "蒲草紙抄本46號（P46）：最早的大篇幅保羅書信抄本", "summary": "P46是最早的大篇幅保羅書信抄本：它是一部來自埃及的希臘文蒲草紙冊子本，存86葉，年代約為公元200年，今分藏於都柏林和安娜堡。它顯示《羅馬書》、《希伯來書》、《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》、《以弗所書》、《加拉太書》、《腓立比書》、《歌羅西書》和《帖撒羅尼迦前書》被合抄為一本書。它的年代以字跡為依據，仍有爭議；由於部分書葉已經佚失，它是否曾收錄《帖撒羅尼迦後書》、《腓利門書》或教牧書信，仍無定論。", "dating": "約公元200年，僅憑字跡定年。INTF定為三世紀初（200至225年），CSNTM定為二世紀末或三世紀初（約200年），切斯特．貝蒂圖書館的一張展覽標籤則作公元三世紀。已發表的看法從一世紀後期到三世紀不等。", "currentLocation": "都柏林切斯特．貝蒂圖書館（BP II，56葉）；安娜堡密芝根大學圖書館（inv. 6238，30葉）", "establishes": [ "一部希臘文蒲草紙保羅書信冊子本現存86葉，分藏於都柏林切斯特．貝蒂圖書館（BP II，56葉）和安娜堡密芝根大學圖書館（inv. 6238，30葉）。各目錄根據古文字學把它定於約公元200年。它來自埃及：切斯特．貝蒂圖書館的一張展覽標籤為其中一葉（BP II f.61）標明埃及和公元三世紀。", "現存書葉依次載有：《羅馬書》（從5:17開始，中有缺漏）、《希伯來書》、《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》、《以弗所書》、《加拉太書》、《腓立比書》、《歌羅西書》和《帖撒羅尼迦前書》（殘缺，在5:28中斷）。可見這些書信當時被合抄為一本書，《希伯來書》緊接在《羅馬書》之後。", "P46中的《羅馬書》已包含第16章，其中有對堅革哩的非比的推薦，以及向百基拉、亞居拉等人的問安（16:1-23）。但它把結尾的頌讚放在15:33之後，並從16:23直接接到《希伯來書》的標題。這段頌讚在校勘本中是16:25-27，在WEB的編號中是14:24-26。", "它的《以弗所書》以寫給以弗所人的書信為標題，但《以弗所書》1:1的問安卻沒有指明收信城市。因此，P46是這節經文那種形式的早期見證。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這部冊子本是否曾收錄《帖撒羅尼迦後書》、《腓利門書》或教牧書信。它開頭和末尾的書葉已經佚失，而關於佚失書葉能容納多少文字的判斷都只是估計。", "其中任何一封書信的作者是誰。收錄《希伯來書》顯示，使用這部冊子本的人把它與保羅書信歸為一類。這是他們看法的證據，而不是誰寫了它的證據。當時看法並不一致：亞歷山大的革利免稱《希伯來書》為保羅的作品，而在羅馬，蓋烏斯只算十三封保羅書信（優西比烏《教會史》6.14.2；6.20.3）。", "確切的年代，或《使徒行傳》所記的事件。年代來自字跡，而不是來自抄本中的任何陳述。這部冊子本證明的是這些書信的文本和流傳，而不是書信所描述的歷史，也不是《使徒行傳》對那段歷史的記述。" ], "debate": "有三個問題懸而未決。年代：多數古文字學家把這字跡定於約公元200年；INTF以及Orsini和Clarysse定於三世紀初，Griffin則主張約175至225年。Kim提出一世紀後期（附和者不多），Comfort和Barrett提出二世紀中葉，而密芝根書葉的首位編者Sanders則把它定於三世紀。內容：Kenyon判斷佚失的末尾書葉太少，容納不下教牧書信；Duff則主張抄寫者正在壓縮文字，也可能添加書葉。馬吉安的版本同樣沒有教牧書信（特土良《駁馬吉安》5.21），但這只是來自不同地區和群體的類比，並不是關於這部冊子本的證據。《羅馬書》：15:33之後的頌讚，是標誌著一個十五章的版本（Manson），還是在原本有十六章的書信中，後來才被移到這個位置（Gamble）？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "較早的定年", "statement": "Kim（1988）把P46定於一世紀後期，Comfort和Barrett（2001）則定於二世紀中葉。若兩者之一正確，這個書信集就更古老。多數古文字學家傾向約公元200年，而任何憑字跡定出的年代都有數十年的誤差範圍。" }, { "label": "原計劃收錄或另加教牧書信（Duff）", "statement": "Duff（1998）主張，抄寫者在後面的頁面中正在壓縮文字，也可能計劃加上額外的書葉，因此這部冊子本可能原本打算收錄教牧書信。Kenyon相反的判斷，依據的是對佚失書葉所能提供篇幅的估算。現存書葉無論如何都無法解決這個問題。" }, { "label": "十五章的《羅馬書》", "statement": "Manson把15:33之後的頌讚理解為寄往羅馬的十五章版本的結尾，而第16章則屬於給以弗所的抄本。Gamble主張十六章的書信才是原貌。P46本身仍把第16章作為《羅馬書》的一部分抄錄。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence/papyrus-46" }, { "id": "marcion-apostolikon", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 138, "dateTo": 161, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Colossians 4:16", "Ephesians 1:1", "Ephesians 2:12", "1 Timothy 6:7", "1 Timothy 6:10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.timothy", "person.titus", "person.philemon" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.colossae" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.17.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We have it on the true tradition of the Church, that this epistle was sent to the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans. Marcion, however, was very desirous of giving it the new title (of Laodicean), as if he were extremely accurate in investigating such a point.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.11.12", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I here pass over discussion about another epistle, which we hold to have been written to the Ephesians, but the heretics to the Laodiceans.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.13.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But what serious gaps Marcion has made in this epistle especially, by withdrawing whole passages at his will, will be clear from the unmutilated text of our own copy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 1.19.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of this teacher there is no doubt that he is a heretic of the Antonine period, impious under the pious. Now, from Tiberius to Antoninus Pius, there are about 115 years and 6-1/2 months.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 1.15", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "no creation of His at all has been discovered up to the fifteenth of the Emperor Severus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1.27.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103127.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In like manner, too, he dismembered the Epistles of Paul, removing all that is said by the apostle respecting that God who made the world, to the effect that He is the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.11.9 (quoting Justin)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And there is a certain Marcion of Pontus, who is even now still teaching his followers to think that there is some other God greater than the Creator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, sec. 3 (ANF 5 numbering)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp", "work": "Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "Phil. 4.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the love of money is the beginning of all troubles.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 75r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Adolf von Harnack", "work": "Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott", "year": "1921 (2nd ed. 1924)", "view": "Reconstructed Marcion's Gospel and Apostolikon from patristic citations. He treated Marcion as a deliberate editor who removed what he took to be Judaizing additions, and saw his canon as a major stimulus to the church's New Testament." }, { "author": "Karl Holl (ed.)", "work": "Epiphanius, vol. 2: Panarion haer. 34-64 (Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller 31)", "year": "1922", "view": "Critical edition of the Greek text. In it Panarion 42 lists Marcion's ten letters from Galatians to Philippians, with Philemon ninth and Philippians tenth, and says Marcion also had parts of a so-called 'Laodiceans'." }, { "author": "John Knox", "work": "Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon", "year": "1942", "view": "Argued that Marcion's two-part scripture, a Gospel and the Apostle, was the catalyst for the formation of the catholic New Testament." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Die Entstehung der christlichen Bibel", "year": "1968", "view": "Argued that Marcion was the first to create a defined Christian scripture, and that the church's New Testament took shape partly in response." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Polykarp von Smyrna und die Pastoralbriefe", "year": "1951", "view": "Proposed that the Pastoral Letters were written in the mid-second century, possibly by Polycarp, partly against Marcion-like teaching." }, { "author": "John J. Clabeaux", "work": "A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul: A Reassessment of the Text of the Pauline Corpus Attested by Marcion", "year": "1989", "view": "Argued that many readings attributed to Marcion are pre-Marcionite, shared with other early text forms, so Marcion edited an inherited collection less than his critics claimed." }, { "author": "Ulrich Schmid", "work": "Marcion und sein Apostolos: Rekonstruktion und historische Einordnung der marcionitischen Paulusbriefausgabe", "year": "1995", "view": "Re-examined the patristic evidence critically. Concluded that Marcion used an existing edition of Paul's letters and that demonstrably tendentious changes are relatively few." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Argued that collecting Paul's letters began with Paul's own editing of some of them, so letter collections predate Marcion." }, { "author": "Jason D. BeDuhn", "work": "The First New Testament: Marcion's Scriptural Canon", "year": "2013", "view": "Offers an English reconstruction of Marcion's Gospel and Apostolikon, presents it as the first New Testament, and treats patristic charges of mutilation with caution." }, { "author": "Judith M. Lieu", "work": "Marcion and the Making of a Heretic: God and Scripture in the Second Century", "year": "2015", "view": "Stresses that Marcion is known only through polemical portraits, and cautions against confident reconstruction of his text or motives." }, { "author": "Luke Timothy Johnson", "work": "The First and Second Letters to Timothy (Anchor Bible 35A)", "year": "2001", "view": "Defends Pauline authorship and a first-century date for 1–2 Timothy, against the view that they were written in the second century." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q201346", "label": "Marcion of Sinope" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q754941", "label": "Marcionism" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q731974", "label": "Panarion" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q174929", "label": "Tertullian" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1231095", "label": "Epistle to the Laodiceans" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q408673", "label": "Epistle to the Ephesians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q369042", "label": "pastoral epistles" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "638955", "label": "Laodicea ad Lycum/Diospolis/Roas" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" } ], "title": "馬吉安收錄十封保羅書信的版本（“Apostolikon”）", "summary": "本都的馬吉安是二世紀中葉的教師，他使用一個收錄十封保羅書信、以《加拉太書》居首的版本。這個版本沒有《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》和《提多書》；據特土良說，它把《以弗所書》題為“致老底嘉人”。此版本已經失傳，只能透過反對者得知，主要是特土良（約207年起）和伊皮法紐（四世紀後期）。它顯示到二世紀中葉，已有十封書信被彙集成一個版本。它本身不能為教牧書信定年。", "dating": "二世紀中葉。特土良把馬吉安置於安東尼．庇護在位時期（138至161年）；這個版本本身的年代不詳，可能更早。這裡所給的138至161年，是馬吉安活動的時間範圍，而不是這個版本的年代。", "currentLocation": "文本傳統（已失傳；根據特土良、伊皮法紐等人的引文重構）", "establishes": [ "馬吉安活躍於二世紀中葉。優西比烏所引述的殉道者游斯丁（《教會史》4.11.9）形容他仍然在世並在教導。特土良稱他為安東尼．庇護在位時期（138至161年）的異端分子（《駁馬吉安》1.19.2）。愛任紐已指控他從保羅書信中刪去一切稱世界的創造者為基督之父的內容（《駁異端》1.27.2）。", "特土良在《駁馬吉安》第五卷中依次駁斥十封書信：《加拉太書》、《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》、《羅馬書》、《帖撒羅尼迦前書》、《帖撒羅尼迦後書》、“老底嘉人書”（即《以弗所書》）、《歌羅西書》、《腓立比書》和《腓利門書》。伊皮法紐（《藥箱》42）是較晚的見證，他說自己是根據馬吉安本人的文本立論；他列出同樣的十封信，也以《加拉太書》居首，但所用的名稱是《以弗所書》，並把《腓利門書》排第九、《腓立比書》排第十。", "《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》和《提多書》不在這個版本中。特土良說，馬吉安接受寫給腓利門的那封簡短私人書信，卻拒絕寫給提摩太和提多的書信（《駁馬吉安》5.21.1）。兩份清單都沒有《希伯來書》。", "在馬吉安派的使用中，教會所知的《以弗所書》題為“致老底嘉人”。特土良在討論《以弗所書》2:12時說，異端分子認為這封信是寫給老底嘉人的，並把這個新標題歸咎於馬吉安（《駁馬吉安》5.11.12；5.17.1）。伊皮法紐（《藥箱》42）則列出《以弗所書》，但說馬吉安也擁有一封所謂“老底嘉人書”的部分內容。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它沒有提供馬吉安的確切措辭。這個文本只在敵對者的引用和轉述中保存下來，所以現代的重構各有不同，而一些被歸咎於馬吉安的讀法，可能是他承襲下來的較早異文。", "它不能顯示教牧書信寫於何時、由誰所寫。這些書信的缺席符合特土良所說馬吉安拒絕它們的說法，也與馬吉安不知道它們、或它們寫成較晚的情況相容。", "它不能顯示《以弗所書》原本是寄往老底嘉的。馬吉安的標題可能是根據《歌羅西書》4:16作出的推論，套用在一份沒有以弗所收信地址的抄本上。特土良把這個標題視為馬吉安的創新。", "它不能顯示是馬吉安發明了保羅書信集，也不能顯示教會的新約只是對他的反應。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍未解決。第一，這個版本是馬吉安編成的，還是承襲而來的？他又改動了多少？批評他的人指控他蓄意刪削（特土良《駁馬吉安》5.13.4）。Clabeaux和Schmid主張，他的許多讀法當時已經流傳，所以他是在一個承襲而來的書信集上工作。第二，《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》和《提多書》的缺席，是否像特土良所說，表示他拒絕了它們？他可能不知道這些書信，或者它們當時可能尚未寫成。第三，有一封信的以弗所收信地址至少在一份早期抄本（P46）中並不存在；“老底嘉人”這個標題，是否保存了這封信的真實收信地址？抑或這是馬吉安從《歌羅西書》4:16推論出來的？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "承襲而來、略經編修的版本", "statement": "Clabeaux（1989）和Schmid（1995）主張，馬吉安使用的是一個現成的保羅書信版本。許多被批評者歸咎於他的讀法，也見於其他早期的文本形式。按這種看法，他蓄意作出的改動，比特土良和伊皮法紐所暗示的少。" }, { "label": "教牧書信寫於馬吉安的時代（von Campenhausen）", "statement": "von Campenhausen（1951）提出的一種少數派看法，把《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》和《提多書》定於二世紀中葉，並提出坡旅甲或與他同時代的人為作者，寫作目的部分是針對類似馬吉安的教導。按這種看法，這些書信不在馬吉安的版本中，是因為它們是新寫成的，或者尚未流傳。" }, { "label": "教牧書信在馬吉安之前已經存在", "statement": "無論是保羅所寫（如Johnson所主張），還是一位後來的追隨者在一、二世紀之交所寫，這些書信當時已經存在，而馬吉安把它們排除在外，正如特土良所說。如果坡旅甲的《致腓立比人書》（4.1）呼應《提摩太前書》6:7和6:10，那麼在馬吉安之前已有人知道《提摩太前書》；不過，兩者的重疊也可能出於一句共同的諺語。" }, { "label": "“老底嘉人”是真實的收信地址", "statement": "至少有一份早期的《以弗所書》抄本（P46）在開頭的經節中沒有提到任何城市，所以有些學者把這封信看作傳閱書信，或看作寫給老底嘉的，並把它等同於《歌羅西書》4:16所說的那封信。《穆拉托利殘篇》提到一封與馬吉安異端有關的偽造“老底嘉人書”，那或許是另一封信。Salmond把那句拉丁文譯作“針對……而寫”；其他譯者則理解為是為推廣馬吉安異端而寫的。" }, { "label": "馬吉安是正典形成的催化劑", "statement": "Harnack、Knox和von Campenhausen認為，馬吉安由一部福音書和“使徒”兩部分組成的經書，是促成教會新約的決定性刺激。Trobisch等人則主張，保羅書信早在馬吉安之前很久就已開始被收集。按這種看法，他的版本反映的是一種既有的做法，而不是開創了這種做法。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-marcion-apostolikon" }, { "id": "papyrus-32", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 299, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P32", "P.Ryl. 1 5", "Manchester, John Rylands Library, Gr. P. 5" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Titus 1:11-15", "Titus 2:3-8", "Titus 3:10", "1 Timothy 3:13-4:8", "Acts 28:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.crete", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P32", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10032&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P133", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10133&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1)", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Against Heresies 3.3.3-4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Arthur S. Hunt", "work": "Catalogue of the Greek Papyri in the John Rylands Library, Manchester, vol. 1: Literary Texts (Nos. 1-61)", "year": "1911", "view": "Published the fragment as No. 5 and dated it to the third century, comparing the hand to the Oxyrhynchus Genesis (P.Oxy. 656) and judging it perhaps the later of the two. He placed it at the bottom of a leaf from a papyrus book, noted an early variant at Titus 2:7 without treating it as original, and named no find-spot, which by his preface means the provenance was not assured." }, { "author": "Raymond E. Brown", "work": "An Introduction to the New Testament", "year": "1997", "view": "Sets out the arguments both for Paul's direct authorship of Titus and 1 Timothy and for later authorship within the Pauline tradition, in the section 'Who Wrote Titus and I Timothy?'" } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2051055", "label": "Papyrus 32" } ], "title": "蒲草紙抄本32號：《提多書》的早期殘片", "summary": "P32是收藏於曼徹斯特的一小片蒲草紙殘片（P.Ryl. 1 5），出自一頁冊子本書葉，保存了《提多書》1:11-15和2:3-8的部分內容。它按字跡定於三世紀（INTF：公元200至225年；Hunt認為它或許比一份可資比較的三世紀字跡更晚），與P133同屬現存最古老的教牧書信抄本。它顯示到那時《提多書》已以書冊形式被抄寫；它不能確定這封信由誰在何時寫成。", "dating": "按字跡定於三世紀（Hunt 1911；他認為它或許比他用作比較的那份三世紀字跡更晚）；INTF目錄則定為三世紀初，即公元200至225年。200至299年的範圍涵蓋這兩種判斷。", "currentLocation": "曼徹斯特大學John Rylands圖書館（Gr. P. 5）", "establishes": [ "一片約10.6乘4.9厘米的殘片，來自一頁蒲草紙冊子本書葉的底部，一面保存了《提多書》1:11-15的部分內容，另一面保存了《提多書》2:3-8的部分內容。A. S. Hunt於1911年以P.Ryl. 1 5的編號出版此殘片，它在目錄中登記為Gregory-Aland P32（曼徹斯特，Gr. P. 5）。", "它的年代只以字跡為依據。Hunt（1911）把它的字跡與俄克喜林庫斯的《創世記》蒲草紙（P.Oxy. 656）比較，定為三世紀，並認為它或許是兩者中較晚的一份。INTF目錄定為公元200至225年。", "它與P133（《提摩太前書》3:13-4:8，目錄定為三世紀）同屬已知最古老的教牧書信抄本。在P46這部三世紀初的保羅書信蒲草紙冊子本的現存書葉中，三封教牧書信都沒有出現。", "Hunt（1911）指出，《提多書》2:7有一個詞出現了只差一個字母的早期異文；除此之外，他只知道這個異文記錄在兩份九世紀的抄本中。他提醒說，這個異文年代早，並不證明它是原文。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能顯示《提多書》由誰在何時寫成。一份在保羅之後一個多世紀才抄成的副本，既符合保羅是作者的看法，也符合書信是在他死後託他之名寫成的看法。", "它不是《提多書》存在的最早證據。二世紀後期寫作的愛任紐，已把《提多書》3:10歸於保羅，並提到保羅寫給提摩太的書信（《駁異端》3.3.3-4）。", "它不能顯示它所屬的冊子本還收錄了什麼（只有《提多書》、三封教牧書信，還是範圍更廣的保羅書信集），也不能顯示它在哪裡抄寫或發現。Hunt沒有說明發現地點；按他自己所述的做法，這表示其來源並不確知。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題懸而未決。第一是年代。P32只按字跡定年，所以任何年代都是估計：Hunt說是三世紀，或許比他用作比較的字跡更晚；INTF目錄則定為公元200至225年。第二是意義。特土良記載，馬吉安二世紀中葉的書信集中沒有《提多書》，而在P46的現存部分中也沒有它。有人把這些缺席解釋為拒絕或遺漏；另一些人則視之為較晚寫成的跡象。P32顯示到三世紀《提多書》已作為書冊被抄寫，但它不能判定作者是誰。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "保羅所寫", "statement": "許多福音派學者和其他一些學者認為，保羅在從《使徒行傳》28:30-31所說的羅馬拘押中獲釋之後寫了《提多書》，可能有書記協助。《使徒行傳》沒有敘述這次獲釋，但這種看法根據書信和後來的傳統加以重構。P32與這種看法相符，卻不能證明它，因為它是在保羅在世之後很久才抄成的副本。" }, { "label": "後來託保羅之名寫成", "statement": "許多批判學者認為，教牧書信是一位追隨者在保羅死後託他之名寫成的作品。他們指出用詞、教會秩序，以及這些書信不在馬吉安的書信集中。一份三世紀的抄本同樣與這種看法相容。" }, { "label": "這片殘片的年代範圍更寬", "statement": "由於P32只能透過比較字跡定年，它的年代只是一個大致的範圍，而不是一個固定的點。Hunt本人認為它或許比他用作比較的那份三世紀《創世記》蒲草紙更晚，所以不能排除它屬於三世紀較後時期。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-32" }, { "id": "irenaeus-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 176, "dateTo": 189, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Timothy 1:4", "1 Timothy 6:7", "1 Timothy 6:10", "1 Timothy 6:20", "2 Timothy 4:10-11", "2 Timothy 4:21", "Titus 3:10", "Colossians 4:14", "Galatians 2:1-2", "Acts 9:15-16", "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 15:1-4", "Acts 16:8-13", "Acts 20:5-6", "Acts 27:1-28:16" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.timothy", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.troas", "place.philippi", "place.jerusalem", "place.puteoli" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1, preface 1 (ANF editors' note identifies 1 Tim 1:4)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.ii.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as certain men have set the truth aside, and bring in lying words and vain genealogies, which, as the apostle says,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.1.1", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.ii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.3.3", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.3.4 (Titus 3:10 cited as Paul's)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Such was the horror which the apostles and their disciples had against holding even verbal communication with any corrupters of the truth; as Paul also says,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.13.3", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xiv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "If, then, any one shall, from the Acts of the Apostles, carefully scrutinize the time concerning which it is written that he went up to Jerusalem on account of the forementioned question, he will find those years mentioned by Paul coinciding with it.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.14.1", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As Luke was present at all these occurrences, he carefully noted them down in writing, so that he cannot be convicted of falsehood or boastfulness", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.15.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103315.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For neither can they contend that Paul was no apostle, when he was chosen for this purpose; nor can they prove Luke guilty of falsehood, when he proclaims the truth to us with all diligence.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1.16.3 (Titus 3:10 cited as Paul's command)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103116.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 5, preface (the work's title adopts the phrase of 1 Tim 6:20)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103500.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.5.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the third book of his work Against Heresies he has inserted a list of the bishops of Rome, bringing it down as far as Eleutherus (whose times we are now considering), under whom he composed his work.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.6.1 (Greek text of Haer. 3.3.3)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Paul speaks of this Linus in his Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.7.1 (title Irenaeus gave his five books)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.8.3 (Greek text of Haer. 3.1.1)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "and Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.22", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the tenth year of the reign of Commodus, Victor succeeded Eleutherus, the latter having held the episcopate for thirteen years.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, section 2 (printed in ANF 5 among the 'Fragments of Caius')", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover, the Acts of all the Apostles are comprised by Luke in one book, and addressed to the most excellent Theophilus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, section 3 (printed in ANF 5 among the 'Fragments of Caius')", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Polycarp", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Phil. 4.1 (parallels 1 Tim 6:7, 10 without naming Paul)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0136.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Joseph B. Tyson", "work": "Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle", "year": "2006", "view": "Proposes that Acts and the final form of Luke's Gospel were published around 120–125, with the need to counter Marcion as a prominent motive." }, { "author": "Bart D. Ehrman", "work": "Forged: Writing in the Name of God", "year": "2011", "view": "Argues that a number of New Testament writings bearing apostles' names were written by later authors, and counts the Pastoral Epistles among them." }, { "author": "Stanley E. Porter", "work": "The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Greek Text", "year": "2023", "view": "Defends Paul's authorship of the Pastoral Epistles in a detailed linguistic commentary on the Greek text." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q182123", "label": "Irenaeus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1281900", "label": "Against Heresies (Irenaeus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "167717", "label": "Lugdunum (Lyon), Irenaeus's see" } ], "title": "里昂的愛任紐論教牧書信與《使徒行傳》的作者", "summary": "里昂的愛任紐約於公元180年撰寫《駁異端》，明確把寫給提摩太和提多的書信引為保羅的書信，又說路加寫了福音書和《使徒行傳》；他稱路加為保羅形影不離的同伴。在這兩項作者歸屬上，他是年代可考的最早見證之一。這顯示這些書卷到那時已如何被接受，卻不能解決作者問題，因為他論證路加是保羅的同伴時，部分依據的正是《使徒行傳》本身。", "dating": "約公元180年（第三卷寫於埃萊烏特里烏斯任羅馬主教期間；據優西比烏記載，他任職十三年，至康茂德在位第十年結束，即約公元189年）", "currentLocation": "文本傳統（只有古代拉丁文譯本完整存世；希臘文部分保存在希坡律陀、伊皮法紐和優西比烏的引文中）", "establishes": [ "到約公元180年，在愛任紐所代表的眾教會中，寫給提摩太和提多的書信已被讀作保羅的書信。他引用《提摩太後書》（《駁異端》3.3.3；3.14.1）和《提多書》（1.16.3；3.3.4）時，都點出保羅的名字；在全書開頭的序言中，他把《提摩太前書》1:4引為「使徒」的話；他給這部著作所定的書名，也取自《提摩太前書》6:20（第5卷序言；優西比烏《教會史》5.7.1）。", "愛任紐指名路加為第三卷福音書的作者（3.1.1），稱他為保羅的同伴，並把《使徒行傳》視為路加的作品。他引用《使徒行傳》16章和20章的「我們」段落，又把其餘的旅程，直到航往部丟利和羅馬的航程，概述為路加親眼所見之事的記錄（3.14.1）。他也把《使徒行傳》中關於保羅蒙召的記述歸於路加（3.15.1）。", "他把《使徒行傳》與保羅的書信對照閱讀。他主張，《加拉太書》2:1-2所說的耶路撒冷之行，就是《使徒行傳》15:2所記、為割禮問題而去的那一次，因此保羅的陳述與路加的記述相符（3.13.3）。《加拉太書》2章對應的是《使徒行傳》15章，還是《使徒行傳》11:27-30的饑荒探訪，至今仍有爭議。", "第三卷可定年於埃萊烏特里烏斯任主教期間。書中的羅馬主教名單從利奴開始（愛任紐認為他就是寫給提摩太的書信中提到的利奴），一直列到當時在任的主教埃萊烏特里烏斯（3.3.3）。優西比烏以希臘文引錄這份名單，並據此說這部著作寫於埃萊烏特里烏斯任內（《教會史》5.5.9；5.6.1）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它本身不能證明保羅寫了教牧書信，或路加寫了《使徒行傳》。愛任紐寫作時距保羅已一個多世紀，又正處於駁斥異端的論辯之中；他論證路加是同伴時，部分依據的正是《使徒行傳》的「我們」段落、《歌羅西書》4:14和《提摩太後書》4:11這些經文本身。", "它不是這些書卷最早的痕跡。坡旅甲寫給腓立比信徒的信（4.1）已有與《提摩太前書》相似的文句，年代更早，雖然它沒有指名保羅。愛任紐標誌的是明確的作者歸屬，而不是最早的使用。他也不是唯一的見證：年代有爭議的《穆拉托利殘篇》同樣把《使徒行傳》歸於路加，並把一封寫給提多、兩封寫給提摩太的書信列入保羅的書信。", "他那份以利奴為羅馬首任主教的傳承名單，屬於二世紀末的教會傳統，不能獨立證實保羅在世時羅馬教會的組織方式。" ], "debate": "愛任紐的見證能證明什麼，學者意見分歧。許多批判學者認為教牧書信是託名之作，並懷疑《使徒行傳》出自保羅的同伴之手；有些學者把《使徒行傳》定年於二世紀，其中Tyson把它與馬吉安爭議聯繫起來。按這種看法，愛任紐見證的是這些書卷如何被接受，而不是它們的來源。另一些學者則認為，他一貫的作者歸屬保存了更早的傳統，而這傳統與文本相符。特土良說馬吉安拒絕教牧書信；學者對於馬吉安是拒絕了這些書信，還是根本不知道它們，仍有爭論。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "後來形成的共識", "statement": "到約公元180年，這些作者歸屬在愛任紐所認識的高盧、羅馬和亞細亞眾教會中已成定論；但數十年的流傳也可能形成這樣的共識。按這種看法，教牧書信可能寫於保羅身後，《使徒行傳》可能出自較晚的作者，而愛任紐只見證了這些書卷如何被接受。" }, { "label": "保存了更早的傳統", "statement": "愛任紐說，他年輕時見過坡旅甲，又訴諸由使徒創立的教會。按這種看法，他所傳遞的是一個早已確立的傳統。這傳統連同《使徒行傳》的「我們」段落，支持路加是《使徒行傳》的作者，也與保羅寫了教牧書信的看法相容。" }, { "label": "部分出於對文本的推論", "statement": "愛任紐可能是把《使徒行傳》的「我們」段落與《歌羅西書》4:14和《提摩太後書》4:11對照閱讀，才認定作者是路加。若是這樣，他的見證並不完全獨立於它被用來支持的新約證據。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-irenaeus-paul" }, { "id": "acts-paul-thecla", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 150, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:50-51", "2 Timothy 1:15-18", "2 Timothy 2:17-18", "2 Timothy 3:11", "2 Timothy 4:10", "2 Timothy 4:19", "2 Corinthians 10:10", "Galatians 4:13-14" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.titus", "person.demas", "person.onesiphorus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.iconium", "place.lystra", "place.pisidian-antioch", "place.myra" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 1 (section numbers as in James 1924): Paul goes up to Iconium", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As Paul was going up to Iconium after the flight from Antioch, his fellow-travellers were Demas and Ermogenes, full of hypocrisy", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 3 (section numbers as in James 1924): Onesiphorus waits on the road to Lystra", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he went along the road to Lystra, and stood waiting for him, and kept looking at the passers by according to the description of Titus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 3 (section numbers as in James 1924): description of Paul", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he saw Paul coming, a man small in size, bald-headed, bandy-legged, well-built, with eyebrows meeting, rather long-nosed, full of grace. For sometimes he seemed like a man, and sometimes he had the countenance of an angel.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 14 (section numbers as in James 1924): Demas and Hermogenes on the resurrection", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And we shall teach you that the resurrection of which this man speaks has taken place, because it has already taken place in the children which we have", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla, editor's note introducing the alternative ending from Grabe's manuscript", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Instead of the last two sections, the ms. which Dr. Grabe used has the following:", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "On Baptism 17.5 (Thecla's example)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But if the writings which wrongly go under Paul's name, claim Thecla's example as a licence for women's teaching and baptizing", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "On Baptism 17.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing, as if he were augmenting Paul's fame from his own store, after being convicted, and confessing that he had done it from love of Paul, was removed from his office.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.25.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Among the rejected writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Abraham J. Malherbe", "work": "A Physical Description of Paul (Harvard Theological Review 79)", "year": "1986", "view": "Argues that Greek influence is visible in early Christian reflection on Paul's physical appearance, and reads the Thecla portrait in that light." }, { "author": "Dennis Ronald MacDonald", "work": "The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon", "year": "1983", "view": "Argues that legends about Paul and Thecla were transmitted orally before being written into the Acts of Paul, and that the author of the Pastoral Epistles knew such legends and wrote in Paul's name partly to counter them." }, { "author": "Stephen J. Davis", "work": "The Cult of Saint Thecla: A Tradition of Women's Piety in Late Antiquity", "year": "2001", "view": "Reconstructs the cult of Thecla in Asia Minor and Egypt from literary, artistic and archaeological evidence, and argues that it consistently promoted virginity and pilgrimage in ways that strengthened women's religious authority." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170", "year": "1893", "view": "Holds that the plain portrait of Paul embodies very early tradition and that the tale's Royal Road toward Lystra shows a writer who knew the localities, while disclaiming that the events narrated are historical." }, { "author": "M. R. James", "work": "The Apocryphal New Testament", "year": "1924", "view": "Dates the Acts of Paul to about AD 160 from Tertullian's report, treats Queen Tryphaena as a historical personage, and reports that Ramsay's theory of an earlier written Thecla story was not generally accepted." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1282652", "label": "Acts of Paul and Thecla" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q764765", "label": "Acts of Paul" } ], "title": "《保羅與特克拉行傳》和對保羅最早的描述", "summary": "《保羅與特克拉行傳》顯示二世紀的基督徒如何記憶和想像保羅；它不是保羅行程的獨立記錄。這部傳奇作品原是《保羅行傳》中的一段，也曾單獨流傳，載有已知最早對保羅外貌的描述。約於公元200年寫作的特土良說，亞細亞有一位長老出於對保羅的愛，以保羅之名撰寫了一部關於特克拉的作品，結果被革除職位。", "dating": "成書早於特土良的《論洗禮》（約公元200年；Ramsay定為約公元195年），很可能約在公元150至200年間；M. R. James（1924）提出約公元160年。現存抄本則晚得多。", "currentLocation": "文本傳統（希臘文本，另有科普特文、拉丁文、敘利亞文及其他譯本）", "establishes": [ "到約公元200年，已有一部署名保羅的作品，用特克拉的榜樣為婦女施教和施洗辯護。特土良說，亞細亞的一位長老撰寫這部作品，彷彿要為保羅增添聲譽；他被定罪，並承認自己是出於對保羅的愛而寫，結果被革除職位（《論洗禮》17.5）。", "它載有已知最早對保羅外貌的描述：身材矮小、禿頭、雙腿彎曲、體格結實、兩眉相連、鼻子略長、滿有恩典，有時看似凡人，有時卻有天使的面容（《保羅與特克拉行傳》3）。", "故事開頭，保羅從彼西底的安提阿出逃後上以哥念去，與《使徒行傳》13:50-51相同；阿尼色弗則在往路司得的路上等候他（參《提摩太後書》3:11）。它使用的人名也見於《提摩太後書》（底馬、黑摩其尼、阿尼色弗、提多），又把「復活已經發生」的教導歸於底馬和黑摩其尼；《提摩太後書》2:17-18則把這教導歸於許米乃和腓理徒。", "到四世紀初，優西比烏把《保羅行傳》列入「被拒絕的」著作，置於公認的書卷之外（《教會史》3.25.4）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能顯示保羅的實際樣貌。這幅肖像或許寫於他死後九十年或更久，而書中所說提供描述的人提多，本身就是故事裡的人物。", "它不是《使徒行傳》的獨立見證。其中的地名和人名可能取自《使徒行傳》和《提摩太後書》，因此與它們相符並不構成另外的佐證。", "它不能證實特克拉的受審經過、她的神蹟，或特里菲娜女王在其中的角色。即使特里菲娜就是James和Ramsay所認定的那位歷史上的附庸國女王，提到一位真實人物也不能證明這段情節屬實。", "特土良只憑這部作品使用特克拉的榜樣來指認它。他所知的文本是否與現存的《保羅與特克拉行傳》逐段相符，並無證明；現存抄本晚得多，各見證之間也有差異（Walker的校訂本印出了取自Grabe抄本的另一個結尾）。" ], "debate": "有兩個問題仍未解決。第一，這幅保羅肖像是否保存了記憶？Ramsay判斷，其中樸實而不加美化的細節承載了非常早期的傳統，而它對當地地理的描寫，顯示作者熟悉該地區；另一些學者則按希臘傳統中描述身體與性格的慣例來解讀這些特徵，這樣它就是一幅文學肖像。第二，這個故事與跟它共用人名的《提摩太後書》有何關係？作者可能從這封書信借用了這些人名；或者，如MacDonald所主張，兩者可能都反映了關於保羅而具爭議的口傳故事。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "早期的地方記憶", "statement": "W. M. Ramsay（1893）主張，這幅樸實而不加美化的肖像承載了非常早期的傳統；而故事中通往路司得的「王家大道」（他認為這個名稱在公元74年後已不再使用），顯示它出自一位熟悉該地區的一世紀作者。Ramsay本人並沒有聲稱這些事件是史實。M. R. James（1924）指出，Ramsay關於曾有一個更早成文的特克拉故事的理論，並未普遍獲得接受。" }, { "label": "文學肖像", "statement": "這些特徵遵循希臘傳統中描述人的身體與性格的慣例；Abraham Malherbe（1986）正是在這個背景下解讀這幅肖像。按這種讀法，它顯示的是二世紀的基督徒如何想像保羅，而不是他實際的樣貌。如果這些特徵出於慣例，它們表面上的樸實就不能保證是早期的記憶。" }, { "label": "從書信推想而來", "statement": "後來的作者可能根據保羅自己的書信，想像出一個不起眼的形象：在書信中，批評者說他親身在場時顯得軟弱（《哥林多後書》10:10）；他回想自己在加拉太時身體的軟弱，又說加拉太人把他當作神的天使來接待（《加拉太書》4:13-14），這可能就是肖像中天使面容的來源。" }, { "label": "教牧書信背後的口傳傳說", "statement": "Dennis MacDonald（1983）主張，保羅與特克拉的故事在被寫進《保羅行傳》之前，已作為口傳傳說流傳；而教牧書信的寫作，部分是為了反駁這類傳說。按這種看法，這個故事並非單純從《提摩太後書》借用人名。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-acts-paul-thecla" }, { "id": "papyrus-30", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P30", "P. Oxy. XIII 1598", "Ghent University Library Inv. 61", "INTF Liste docID 10030" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Thessalonians 4:12-13", "1 Thessalonians 4:16-17", "1 Thessalonians 5:3", "1 Thessalonians 5:8-10", "1 Thessalonians 5:12-18", "1 Thessalonians 5:25-28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-2", "Acts 17:1-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silvanus", "person.timothy" ], "placeIds": [ "place.thessalonica" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P30 (docID 10030)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10030&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript record: P30", "locator": "GA P30", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P30", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Papyrus 30", "locator": "Q2051048", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2051048.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt", "work": "The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part XIII", "year": "1919", "view": "Edit P. Oxy. 1598, place the hand probably in the late third century while heading it late third or fourth, find the text eclectic, and suggest from the surviving page numbers that the codex was a collection of Paul's letters." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2051048", "label": "Papyrus 30" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q622640", "label": "Oxyrhynchus (find-place)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "736983", "label": "Oxyrhynchus/Pemje (find-place)" } ], "title": "紙草抄本30（P. Oxy. 1598）：藏於根特的《帖撒羅尼迦前書》和《帖撒羅尼迦後書》殘片", "summary": "P30顯示，約到三世紀時，《帖撒羅尼迦前書》和《帖撒羅尼迦後書》已前後相連地抄寫，很可能收在一部保羅書信集中。它的殘片來自一部在俄克喜林庫斯發現、現藏根特的冊子抄本，保存了《帖撒羅尼迦前書》4至5章的部分內容和《帖撒羅尼迦後書》的開頭，還有頁碼207至208；最初的編者認為這些頁碼指向這樣一部書信集。它不能顯示這兩封書信寫於何時、何地或由誰所寫。", "dating": "CSNTM的記錄定為三世紀，INTF《Liste》在館藏條目層級的記錄亦然；《Liste》的條目標題則寫作「E II - A III」（二世紀末至三世紀初）。最初的編者認為字跡大概屬於三世紀後期，而在條目標題中標為三世紀後期或四世紀。", "currentLocation": "根特大學圖書館，Inv. 61", "establishes": [ "一部出自埃及俄克喜林庫斯的紙草冊子抄本載有《帖撒羅尼迦前書》，抄寫於三世紀；最初的編者也容許是四世紀。現存來自兩張相連葉片的四塊殘片，以及一片未能辨認的碎片；每頁一欄，約34行。這些葉片保存了《帖撒羅尼迦前書》4:12-13、4:16-17、5:3、5:8-10、5:12-18和5:25-28，中間有大段缺漏。", "在這部冊子抄本中，《帖撒羅尼迦後書》緊接在《帖撒羅尼迦前書》之後。其中一欄依次載有《帖撒羅尼迦前書》的結尾、第一封信的卷末標題、第二封信的卷首標題，以及它的問安語（《帖撒羅尼迦後書》1:1-2）。問安語有一部分留存，其中包括西拉（Silvanus）這個名字的一部分。", "頁碼207和208留存下來，可見在《帖撒羅尼迦前書》4:12之前約有206頁。Grenfell和Hunt（1919）指出，保羅書信從《羅馬書》到《帖撒羅尼迦前書》的通常次序，正好可以填滿這些頁數，因而提出這部書是一部保羅書信集。這是他們的推論。", "文本屬混合型。最初的編者發現，它有時與梵蒂岡抄本一致，有時與西奈抄本和亞歷山大抄本一致。按他們的釋讀，《帖撒羅尼迦前書》以西奈抄本和梵蒂岡抄本原抄寫者所用的簡短標題作結。它沒有其他抄本所加的卷末附記；其中一則附記說這封信是從雅典寫的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能為任何一封書信的寫作定年或定點。它是約兩個世紀之後的抄本；缺少「寫於雅典」的附記，既不能證實、也不能否定關於保羅在何處寫《帖撒羅尼迦前書》的任何看法。", "它不能解決《帖撒羅尼迦後書》由誰所寫的問題。它只顯示，到三世紀時，這部冊子抄本把它作為寫給帖撒羅尼迦信徒的第二封信，緊接在第一封之後，而且很可能收在一部保羅書信集中。", "它不能證實《使徒行傳》對保羅在帖撒羅尼迦宣教的記述（《使徒行傳》17:1-10）。", "那遺失的206頁的內容和次序，是根據頁數推算出來的；沒有人見過它們。" ], "debate": "年代只以字跡為依據。Grenfell和Hunt認為字跡大概屬於三世紀後期，但在條目標題中標為三世紀後期或四世紀。CSNTM定為三世紀，INTF《Liste》在館藏條目層級的記錄也是如此，而《Liste》的條目標題則寫作「E II - A III」（二世紀末至三世紀初）。認為這部冊子抄本是保羅書信集的看法，依據的是頁數推算。遺失的約206頁符合從《羅馬書》到《帖撒羅尼迦前書》的通常次序，但不能排除篇幅相近的其他內容。保羅是否寫了《帖撒羅尼迦後書》仍有爭議；這份紙草關乎這封信如何被抄寫，而不關乎是誰寫的。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "稍晚的抄本", "statement": "最初的編者把這份紙草標為三世紀後期或四世紀，雖然他們傾向於三世紀後期。若這個範圍中較晚的一端才正確，內容不受影響，但P30就是一個稍晚的見證。" }, { "label": "稍早的抄本", "statement": "INTF《Liste》的條目標題把P30定為「E II - A III」，即二世紀末至三世紀初。這個年代仍然只以字跡為依據，內容也不受影響。" }, { "label": "未必是完整的保羅書信集", "statement": "頁碼只能證明在《帖撒羅尼迦前書》4:12之前約有206頁。篇幅相近、但選篇或次序不同的文本，也可以填滿同樣的空間。「保羅書信集」是編者認為很可能成立的推論，而不是任何人親眼見過的事實。" }, { "label": "《帖撒羅尼迦後書》為託名之作", "statement": "許多批判學者認為，《帖撒羅尼迦後書》是較晚的作者以保羅之名寫成的。按這種看法，P30仍然顯示，到三世紀時，這封信被緊接在《帖撒羅尼迦前書》之後抄寫，作為寫給帖撒羅尼迦信徒的第二封信。這份紙草與兩種作者觀點都相容。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-30" }, { "id": "papyrus-87", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 299, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P87", "INTF Liste docID 10087", "Köln, Institut für Altertumskunde, Inv. Nr. 12", "P.Köln IV 170" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Philemon 1:13-15", "Philemon 1:24-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.philemon", "person.onesimus" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P87", "locator": "P87 (docID 10087)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10087&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF transcription of P87, folio 1r", "locator": "P87 f. 1r (Phlm 13-15)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10087&pageID=10&format=teiraw", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF transcription of P87, folio 1v", "locator": "P87 f. 1v (Phlm 24-25)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10087&pageID=20&format=teiraw", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P139", "locator": "P139 (docID 10139)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10139&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record 01 (Codex Sinaiticus)", "locator": "01 (docID 20001)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P46", "locator": "P46 (docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript catalogue: GA P87", "locator": "GA P87", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P87", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Papyrus 87", "locator": "Q571588", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q571588.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "To this epistle alone did its brevity avail to protect it against the falsifying hands of Marcion. I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Cornelia Römer (editor of no. 170), in Bärbel Kramer, Cornelia Römer, Dieter Hagedorn and others", "work": "Kölner Papyri (P. Köln), Band 4 (Papyrologica Coloniensia VII)", "year": "1982", "view": "Edits the fragment as P.Köln IV 170. The University of Cologne's collection record for this edition dates it to the early third century and gives its origin as unknown." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q571588", "label": "Papyrus 87" } ], "title": "紙草抄本87：藏於科隆的《腓利門書》殘片", "summary": "紙草抄本87是冊子抄本一頁的小殘片，現藏科隆，一面保存《腓利門書》13-15節的部分內容，另一面保存24-25節的部分內容。它被編目為三世紀，是已知最古老的《腓利門書》抄本，顯示這封信到那時已以書冊形式被抄寫。殘片上只留下零散的字母，對於這封信由誰所寫、在何處寫成，都沒有說明。", "dating": "公元三世紀，按字跡定年（INTF：200-299；CSNTM：三世紀）。科隆藏品為其校訂本所作的記錄（P.Köln IV 170，C. Römer編）把它定在該世紀初。", "currentLocation": "科隆大學Institut für Altertumskunde（Inv. Nr. 12）", "establishes": [ "科隆大學Institut für Altertumskunde所藏的一片紙草殘片（Inv. Nr. 12），由INTF登記為Gregory-Aland P87，一面保存《腓利門書》13-15節的部分內容，另一面保存《腓利門書》24-25節的部分內容。", "兩面依次載有同一封信的部分內容，因此這片殘片來自冊子抄本的一張葉片，而不是書卷。INTF記錄一面有八行的殘餘，另一面有兩行，並估計原頁有32行。", "INTF把它定為三世紀（公元200-299年）。在INTF的目錄中，它是唯一定年早於四世紀的《腓利門書》抄本。其次最古老的P139和西奈抄本，都屬四世紀。", "它是到三世紀時已有人抄寫《腓利門書》的實物證據。至於這封信更早已在流傳，證據則來自文獻：三世紀初寫作的特土良記載，馬吉安在二世紀編成的保羅書信集收有這封信。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能顯示《腓利門書》由誰所寫、寫於何時，或寫於哪一次監禁期間。羅馬、以弗所和凱撒利亞都有人提出；這些問題要從書信本身來論證。", "INTF轉錄中有很大部分文字是編者的復原。在載有24-25節的那一面，底馬的名字完全出於復原，路加的名字只讀出兩個字母，其中一個還不確定；因此，這片殘片本身並不見證這些名字。", "它不能顯示所屬的冊子抄本只載有《腓利門書》，還是一部保羅書信集，也不能顯示它在何處抄寫。所查閱的目錄記錄都沒有寫明出土地點。" ], "debate": "年代只以字跡為依據。INTF和CSNTM把這片殘片編目為三世紀，科隆藏品為其校訂本所作的記錄則把範圍收窄到三世紀初；根據文學書體所定的年代，通常前後都容許數十年的出入。留存的字母太少，任何關於其文本類型的主張，都超出了殘片所能顯示的範圍。主張它來自像P46那樣的保羅書信合集，也是如此；按INTF的索引，P46現存的葉片並不包含《腓利門書》的任何部分。大多數學者基於其他理由，接受《腓利門書》為保羅所寫；至於他在何處寫成，仍有爭議。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "最低限度的讀法", "statement": "一片只有約十行殘缺文字的殘片，只能顯示到三世紀時已有人在冊子抄本中抄寫《腓利門書》。它不能證實這封信的背景，或信中提到的人物。這些問題取決於書信本身，以及它與《歌羅西書》和《使徒行傳》的關聯。" }, { "label": "年代上僅稍為領先", "statement": "按字跡定出的年代都是估計。如果P87抄於三世紀後期，而P139或西奈抄本抄於四世紀初，現存最古老的幾份《腓利門書》抄本在年代上就相當接近。按目錄年代，P87仍是最早的，但它領先的幅度可能只有數十年。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-87" }, { "id": "codex-vaticanus-paul", "kind": "manuscript", "dateFrom": 300, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland 03 (B)", "Vat. gr. 1209", "INTF Liste docID 20003", "Gregory-Aland 1957 (15th-century supplement, Vat. gr. 1209 pp. 1519-1536)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 1:1-16:24", "1 Corinthians 1:1-16:24", "2 Corinthians 1:1-13:14", "Galatians 1:1-6:18", "Ephesians 1:1-6:24", "Philippians 1:1-4:23", "Colossians 1:1-4:18", "1 Thessalonians 1:1-5:28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-3:18", "Hebrews 1:1-9:14" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 03 (docID 20003)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20003&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 1957 (docID 31957)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=31957&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana", "work": "DigiVatLib manuscript record, Vat.gr.1209", "locator": "Vat.gr.1209", "url": "https://digi.vatlib.it/mss/detail/Vat.gr.1209", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 01 (docID 20001)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 02 (docID 20002)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Codex Vaticanus", "locator": "Q209285", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q209285.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "F. H. A. Scrivener", "work": "A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament", "year": "1861", "view": "Reports that the older, continuous section numbers in Vaticanus's Pauline letters end Galatians at 58, begin Ephesians at 70 and begin Hebrews at 59, and infers they were copied from an older manuscript with Hebrews before Ephesians." }, { "author": "Caspar René Gregory", "work": "Canon and Text of the New Testament", "year": "1907", "view": "Notes that in Vaticanus Hebrews follows Thessalonians, yet the continuous chapter numbers of Paul's letters show that Hebrews stood immediately after Galatians in the book where they were first assigned." }, { "author": "Umberto Benigni", "work": "Codex Vaticanus, in The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4", "year": "1908", "view": "Calls the codex's original home uncertain: Hort placed it at Rome, Rendel Harris and Armitage Robinson in Asia Minor, and a more common opinion in Egypt." }, { "author": "Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman", "work": "The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th ed.)", "year": "2005", "view": "Standard handbook on how the New Testament text was copied and transmitted, including a survey of the principal Greek manuscripts." }, { "author": "Bruce M. Metzger", "work": "The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance", "year": "1987", "view": "Traces how the New Testament canon took shape and considers the differences in the sequence of its books." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Traces the growth of the collection of Paul's letters and suggests that Paul himself may have played a major role in publishing its first collection." }, { "author": "T. C. Skeat", "work": "The Codex Sinaiticus, the Codex Vaticanus and Constantine (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that both codices were produced at Caesarea in connection with Constantine's order for Bibles from Eusebius. The proposal is debated." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q209285", "label": "Codex Vaticanus" } ], "title": "梵蒂岡抄本（B）與保羅書信", "summary": "梵蒂岡抄本（Vat. gr. 1209，Gregory-Aland 03）是一部四世紀的希臘文聖經，保存了從《羅馬書》到《帖撒羅尼迦後書》的書信，以及《希伯來書》直至9:14，原有葉片就止於此處。Scrivener（1861）指出，其保羅書信部分的連續分段編號從《加拉太書》（58）跳到《以弗所書》（70），而《希伯來書》從59開始，顯示曾有一份更早的抄本把《希伯來書》放在《加拉太書》之後。遺失的結尾無法顯示其後是否接有《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》和《腓利門書》。", "dating": "四世紀（INTF《Liste》作「IV」；梵蒂岡圖書館作「sec. IV」）；《希伯來書》9:14至書末及《啟示錄》為十五世紀補抄", "currentLocation": "梵蒂岡宗座圖書館，梵蒂岡城（Vat. gr. 1209）", "establishes": [ "梵蒂岡圖書館所藏的一部四世紀希臘文冊子抄本（Vat. gr. 1209，Gregory-Aland 03），保存了《羅馬書》、《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》、《加拉太書》、《以弗所書》、《腓立比書》、《歌羅西書》、《帖撒羅尼迦前書》、《帖撒羅尼迦後書》和《希伯來書》1:1–9:14。這些書卷排在福音書、《使徒行傳》和大公書信之後，位於該抄本第1445–1518頁。", "《希伯來書》在《帖撒羅尼迦後書》結束的同一頁（第1512頁）開始，因此在這部抄本中，它緊接在保羅寫給帖撒羅尼迦信徒的書信之後，屬於保羅書信部分。", "據Scrivener（1861）所述，在該抄本兩套分段系統中較早的一套裡，保羅書信採用一個連續的分段編號序列：《加拉太書》止於58，《以弗所書》始於70，《希伯來書》則始於59。他和Gregory（1907）都斷定，這套編號原是為一份更早的抄本而編，而那份抄本把《希伯來書》放在《加拉太書》和《以弗所書》之間。", "原抄寫者的筆跡止於《希伯來書》9:14。《希伯來書》其餘部分和《啟示錄》（第1519–1536頁）是十五世紀的補抄，另行編目為Gregory-Aland 1957。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "這部抄本是否載有《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》和《腓利門書》。最後幾疊書帖已經遺失，缺失的葉數也不得而知，因此這部抄本對教牧書信和《腓利門書》保持沉默。這並不構成反對它們的證據。", "保羅寫了《希伯來書》這一點。它在保羅書信中的位置，顯示四世紀的抄寫者如何歸類一封沒有署名作者的書信，卻不能顯示它由誰所寫。", "這套連續分段編號最初在何時、由誰編定，或者它們所反映的那份更早抄本的年代和地點。" ], "debate": "現存內容並無爭議，分段編號的跳躍自十九世紀以來也一直有人指出；但對它的解釋則較未有定論。這套連續編號在何時、由誰編定，以及它們是來自該抄本本身的文本祖本還是另一份抄本，都不確定。遺失書帖的內容是推斷出來的：西奈抄本和亞歷山大抄本都在《希伯來書》之後接上《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》和《腓利門書》，但把《希伯來書》放在《羅馬書》之後的P46顯示，早期的書信集各有不同。這部抄本在四世紀中的具體年代及其來源仍有爭論：到1908年，已有人提出羅馬、小亞細亞和埃及，Skeat後來則主張凱撒利亞。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "沿襲而來的編號（通常的讀法）", "statement": "這套連續分段編號是從一份把《希伯來書》放在《加拉太書》之後的更早抄本抄過來的。這部抄本本身則把《希伯來書》放在《帖撒羅尼迦後書》之後，西奈抄本和亞歷山大抄本也是這個次序。" }, { "label": "編號另有來源", "statement": "這套分段系統可能來自另一份抄本，而不是提供正文的那一份。若是這樣，它記錄的是該系統來源中的次序，而不是這部抄本直接文本祖本中的次序。" }, { "label": "遺失結尾的內容", "statement": "教牧書信和《腓利門書》，或許還有《啟示錄》，很可能接在《希伯來書》之後，正如西奈抄本和亞歷山大抄本那樣。這是根據同類聖經抄本作出的合理推論，但沒有任何現存葉片能為這部抄本證實這一點。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-codex-vaticanus-paul" }, { "id": "paley-horae-paulinae", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1790, "dateTo": 1790, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 15:24-28", "Acts 20:2-3", "Acts 20:16", "Acts 24:17-19", "1 Corinthians 16:1-4", "2 Corinthians 8:1-4", "2 Corinthians 9:2", "1 Corinthians 4:17-19", "1 Corinthians 16:10-11", "Acts 19:21-22", "Acts 16:1", "2 Timothy 1:5", "2 Timothy 3:15", "Galatians 2:1-10", "Acts 15:1-29" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.timothy", "person.erastus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.macedonia", "place.achaia", "place.jerusalem", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.lystra" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 132", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In examining, therefore, the agreement between ancient writings, the character of truth and originality is undesignedness: and this test applies to every supposition", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 133", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As to the history, it extends to these points:—It proves the general reality of the circumstances: it proves the historian's knowledge of these circumstances.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 139", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "If the reader, therefore, meets with a number which contains an instance that appears to him unsatisfactory, or founded in mistake, he will dismiss that number from the argument, but without prejudice to any other.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 2 (Romans), no. 1; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 145", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here therefore, at length, but fetched from three different writings, we have obtained the several circumstances we inquired after, and which the Epistle to the Romans brings together", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 3 (First Corinthians), no. 3; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 178", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "One thing at least concerning it is certain: that if this passage of St. Paul's history had been taken from his letter, it would have sent Timothy to Corinth by name, or expressly however into Achaia.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 5 (Galatians), no. 2; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 235", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the discrepancy in the two accounts is so considerable, that it is not without difficulty they can be adapted to the same transaction: so that upon this supposition, there is no place for suspecting that the writers were guided or assisted by each other.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 12 (Second Timothy), no. 2; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 355", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here we have a fair unforced example of coincidence.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae (Dublin printing)", "year": "1790", "locator": "Title page and contents, Dublin printing of 1790 (Princeton Theological Seminary Library copy)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/horaepaulinaeo00pale", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Lydia McGrew", "work": "Hidden in Plain View: Undesigned Coincidences in the Gospels and Acts", "year": "2017", "view": "Revives the long-neglected argument from undesigned coincidences, applying it within the Gospels and between Acts and Paul's letters, and argues that such puzzle-like fits are best explained by authors who knew the truth about the events and point to honest eyewitness sources." }, { "author": "J. J. Blunt", "work": "Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old and New Testament, an Argument of their Veracity", "year": "1847", "view": "Applies the method of undesigned coincidences to the books of Moses, the Gospels and Acts, and other books of Scripture. The book rearranges studies Blunt published from 1828 onward." }, { "author": "F. C. Baur", "work": "Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi", "year": "1845", "view": "Accepts only Galatians, 1-2 Corinthians and Romans as authentic and reads Acts as a later account that embellished its traditions and drew artificial parallels between Peter and Paul. This undercuts Paley's premise of thirteen genuine letters and a well-informed Acts." }, { "author": "John Knox", "work": "Chapters in a Life of Paul", "year": "1950", "view": "Treats Paul's letters as the primary source for his life and Acts as a secondary one; where the two conflict, the letters are to be followed. Paley instead treats them as independent witnesses that check each other." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about 115 and argues that its author used Josephus and a collection of Paul's letters, the kind of dependence Paley's test is meant to rule out." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q433739", "label": "William Paley" } ], "title": "威廉．佩利的《Horae Paulinae》（1790）：《使徒行傳》與保羅書信之間非刻意的吻合", "summary": "威廉．佩利的《Horae Paulinae》（1790）比較保羅書信與《使徒行傳》，主張那些看來並非事先安排的吻合，顯示兩者都以真實事件為根據。他的首要例子是為耶路撒冷籌集的捐獻：《羅馬書》15章在一處集中說明這件事，《使徒行傳》和《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》則零散地提供各個片段。這是從內部比較得出的論證，不是新證據；而且只有在這些吻合確實並非事先安排、彼此獨立時才能成立，而這一點有些學者並不同意。", "dating": "1790年（初版）；此處引文取自1819年出版的全集", "currentLocation": "印刷書籍；1790年都柏林印本和1819年全集本已在archive.org數碼化", "establishes": [ "佩利的檢驗標準（第1章）：一部史書與書信之間的吻合，只有在看來並非事先安排時，才算得上證據。根據書信編成的史書、根據史書偽造的書信，或兩者取材自同一個共同來源，都會產生刻意的吻合。他把這個標準應用於《使徒行傳》和十三封書信，並為每個例子編號，讓讀者可以剔除較弱的例子，而不必捨棄其餘。", "他的首要例子（第2章第1例）建基於一項可靠的文本觀察。《羅馬書》15:25-26把馬其頓和亞該亞的捐助，與即將前往耶路撒冷的行程連在一起。《使徒行傳》20:2-3和20:16記述了在希臘的逗留和急於趕往耶路撒冷的行程，卻沒有提到捐獻；《使徒行傳》只在保羅於腓力斯面前申辯時才提到它（24:17）。《哥林多前書》16:1-4和《哥林多後書》8:1-4、9:2則提供了亞該亞和馬其頓捐助的資料。", "第二個例子（第3章第3至4例）：《使徒行傳》19:21-22記載保羅差派提摩太和以拉都先往馬其頓去。《哥林多前書》4:17說提摩太已被差派，16:10-11卻把他能否到達哥林多視為未定。佩利以一條取道馬其頓的路線來調和兩者。這條路線是他自己的推論，他也只把它說成很可能如此，而不是經文明言的。", "這兩個首要例子都只依賴幾乎所有學者都承認為保羅所寫的書信（《羅馬書》、《哥林多前書》和《哥林多後書》）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "《使徒行傳》處處準確這一點。這些吻合涉及旅行計劃、同伴和一次捐獻，而不涉及書中的講辭、神蹟，或敘述者對事件的詮釋。", "佩利所用的十三封書信全都出自保羅這一點。他取自有爭議書信（例如《提摩太後書》）的例子，其說服力只能與把這些書信定年於保羅在世時期的論據一樣強。", "這些吻合毫無疑問彼此獨立這一點。如果《使徒行傳》的作者知道這些書信，有些吻合就屬於依賴關係，而不是互相佐證。" ], "debate": "佩利的推論只有在這些吻合彼此獨立時才成立。自F. C. Baur以來，許多批判學者把《使徒行傳》讀作較晚寫成、經過塑造的記述，其中大多數只承認七封書信肯定出自保羅。Richard Pervo主張，《使徒行傳》成書於二世紀初，並使用了保羅的書信，這正是佩利的檢驗所要排除的依賴關係。從佩利到Lydia McGrew，這種方法的回應是：這些吻合太過迂迴，不像是借用；在佩利的例子中，《使徒行傳》幾乎沒有提到捐獻，而在19:22也只把提摩太差往馬其頓。這類沉默究竟是偶然還是刻意，本身也有爭議。許多學者認為《使徒行傳》的作者並不知道這些書信，這等於承認了佩利關於獨立性的前提。他們轉而回應說，在行程和同伴上的吻合，顯示作者掌握了關於保羅行蹤的可靠資料，卻不能顯示《使徒行傳》的講辭或神學準確；而在兩者衝突之處，他們以書信為優先（Knox）。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行傳》使用了書信", "statement": "有些學者，尤其是Richard Pervo，認為《使徒行傳》的作者知道保羅的幾封書信。按這種看法，有些吻合是借用，而不是獨立的印證。這樣，佩利所指出的那種鬆散的吻合（《使徒行傳》對捐獻幾乎隻字不提，提摩太只被差往馬其頓），就意味著這些書信是被自由運用，而不是被照抄。" }, { "label": "沉默是刻意的", "statement": "有些註釋者把《使徒行傳》對捐獻近乎沉默的現象，解釋為刻意的避而不談，例如這份饋贈可能受到冷淡對待，或者與保羅的被捕牽連在一起。這樣，這項省略就是刻意的，而不是偶然的。但這仍意味著作者知道有這次捐獻。" }, { "label": "較晚的書信使用了《使徒行傳》", "statement": "許多批判學者認為《提摩太後書》寫於保羅身後。較晚的作者可能是從《使徒行傳》16:1得知提摩太的母親是猶太人；佩利則把這一點列為與《提摩太後書》1:5和3:15之間非刻意的吻合（第12章第2至3例）。因此，這些例子只對那些已經把這封信定年於保羅時代的讀者才有份量。" }, { "label": "只計吻合，擱置張力", "statement": "批評這種方法的人認為，除非把張力一併衡量，例如《加拉太書》1至2章與《使徒行傳》在保羅幾次上耶路撒冷一事上的張力，否則羅列吻合之處可能會誇大論證的力度。佩利本人討論過《加拉太書》2章與《使徒行傳》15章之間的差距，並主張這顯示兩位作者都沒有取材於對方；為他辯護的人則補充說，每一處吻合都必須按其本身的條件來判斷。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-paley-horae-paulinae" }, { "id": "codex-sinaiticus-paul", "kind": "manuscript", "dateFrom": 300, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland 01", "INTF Liste docID 20001", "British Library Add. MS 43725" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 1:1-16:24", "1 Corinthians 1:1-16:24", "2 Corinthians 1:1-13:14", "Galatians 1:1-6:18", "Ephesians 1:1-6:24", "Ephesians 1:1", "Philippians 1:1-4:23", "Colossians 1:1-4:18", "1 Thessalonians 1:1-5:28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-3:18", "Hebrews 1:1-13:25", "1 Timothy 1:1-6:21", "2 Timothy 1:1-4:22", "Titus 1:1-3:15", "Philemon 1:1-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.caesarea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Content", "locator": "About the Codex: Content (surviving books; New Testament order, Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians, Acts between the Pastoral and Catholic Epistles)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/content.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Date", "locator": "About the Codex: Date (fourth century, sometimes mid-century, by palaeography; Vaticanus of similar date)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/date.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Significance", "locator": "About the Codex: Significance (corrections from the fourth to the twelfth century; order of books)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/significance.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: History", "locator": "About the Codex: History (holdings: British Library 347 leaves; Leipzig 43 leaves; parts of six leaves in St Petersburg; further leaves at St Catherine's)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/history.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "Transcription of Codex Sinaiticus, quire 36, folio 5 recto", "locator": "Quire 36, folio 5 recto: colophon after 2 Esdras stating that the text was collated with a very old copy corrected by the martyr Pamphilus", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/handler/transcription.ashx?q=36&f=5&s=r&type=0", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "Transcription of Codex Sinaiticus, quire 37, folio 3 recto", "locator": "Quire 37, folio 3 recto: colophon after Esther stating that the text was collated with a very old copy corrected by the martyr Pamphilus, whose own subscription cites Origen's Hexapla", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/handler/transcription.ashx?q=37&f=3&s=r&type=0", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 01", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 01 (docID 20001): IV century; British Library Add. 43725; page index Romans from 261r to Philemon at 298r, Hebrews 288v-293v, Acts from 299r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of GA 01, folio 280v", "locator": "GA 01 folio 280v (pageID 1620), Ephesians 1:1: first hand omits the place-name; corrector supplies it", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=20001&pageID=1620&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 03", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 03 (docID 20003): IV century; Vat. gr. 1209; page index has Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians and ends at Hebrews 9:14", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20003&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of GA 03, page 1493", "locator": "GA 03 page 1493 (pageID 2620), Ephesians 1:1: first hand omits the place-name; corrector supplies it", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=20003&pageID=2620&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: P46", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (docID 10046): dated 200-225; page index Romans, Hebrews, 1-2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of P46, folio 75r", "locator": "P46 folio 75r (pageID 1310), Ephesians 1:1: no place-name", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 02", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 02 (docID 20002): V century; British Library Royal 1 D.VIII; page index has Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.3.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book VI", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.25.11-14", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some who have gone before us is that Clement, bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, and of others that Luke, the author of the Gospel and the Acts, wrote it.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book VII", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 7.32.24-25 (Pamphilus a presbyter of the church at Caesarea in Palestine)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250107.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In his time we became acquainted with Pamphilus, that most eloquent man, of truly philosophical life, who was esteemed worthy of the office of presbyter in that parish.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "D. C. Parker", "work": "Codex Sinaiticus: The Story of the World's Oldest Bible", "year": "2010", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry. A book-length introduction to the codex by the director of the University of Birmingham (ITSEE) team on the Codex Sinaiticus Project. The book's existence and authorship were verified; its arguments were not checked, and it is not cited here as support for any claim." }, { "author": "T. C. Skeat", "work": "The Codex Sinaiticus, the Codex Vaticanus and Constantine (Journal of Theological Studies 50)", "year": "1999", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry. The article discusses the two codices in relation to Constantine. Its title and journal were verified, but its argument was not checked against the text, so it is not cited here as support for any position on where the codex came from." }, { "author": "J. F. Fenlon", "work": "Codex Sinaiticus (The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4)", "year": "1908", "view": "Reports that the codex's origin had been assigned to Rome, southern Italy, Egypt and Caesarea but could not be determined. Dates the corrector who added the Pamphilus note at the end of 2 Esdras probably to the seventh century, and notes that, although some linked the codex with Constantine's fifty copies, there is no sign it was ever at Constantinople." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q152962", "label": "Codex Sinaiticus" } ], "title": "西奈抄本中的保羅書信", "summary": "西奈抄本是一部抄寫於四世紀的希臘文聖經，現大部分藏於大英圖書館。它是已知最古老、收錄全部十三封冠以保羅之名的書信的抄本，《希伯來書》也列於其間，位於《帖撒羅尼迦後書》之後。它顯示保羅之後約三個世紀，他的書信如何被收集和閱讀；但作為一份經過校改的抄本，它既不能確定每一處原始讀法，也不能確定《希伯來書》由誰寫成。", "dating": "公元四世紀（按字體定年；有時更精確地定於該世紀中葉）", "currentLocation": "倫敦大英圖書館（Add. MS 43725，包括整部新約）；其餘書葉藏於萊比錫大學圖書館、聖彼得堡的俄羅斯國家圖書館，以及西奈的聖凱瑟琳修道院", "establishes": [ "這部按字體定年於四世紀的希臘文羊皮紙抄本，保存了整部新約。其中保羅書信部分的次序是：《羅馬書》、《哥林多前書》、《哥林多後書》、《加拉太書》、《以弗所書》、《腓立比書》、《歌羅西書》、《帖撒羅尼迦前書》、《帖撒羅尼迦後書》、《希伯來書》、《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》和《腓利門書》，緊接其後的是《使徒行傳》（大英圖書館Add. MS 43725，INTF頁面索引中的第261r–298r葉）。", "它是已知最古老、收錄每一封冠以保羅之名的書信的抄本。蒲草紙抄本46號（約公元200至225年）按其現存狀態，沒有《帖撒羅尼迦後書》、《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》或《腓利門書》。年代相近的梵蒂岡抄本在《希伯來書》9:14中斷，因此無從得知它是否曾收錄《提摩太前書》、《提摩太後書》、《提多書》和《腓利門書》。", "在四世紀兩大希臘文抄本——西奈抄本和梵蒂岡抄本——中，《希伯來書》都抄在保羅書信集之內；在本抄本中，它位於《帖撒羅尼迦後書》和《提摩太前書》之間。同一世紀的優西比烏把保羅的書信算作十四封，但也記載有些人拒絕《希伯來書》，因為羅馬教會質疑它出自保羅手筆。", "在《以弗所書》1:1，原抄寫者的文本缺少指名以弗所的片語，後來由一位校訂者補上。蒲草紙抄本46號和梵蒂岡抄本的原抄寫者文本也缺少這個片語，因此本抄本是這個經文問題最早的見證之一。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "《希伯來書》由誰寫成。這封書信的位置顯示的是四世紀抄寫者怎樣把它歸類，而不是誰寫了它。據優西比烏記述，俄利根認為書中的思想屬於保羅，措辭則出自另一人，並說只有神知道作者是誰。", "每一處的原始措辭。西奈抄本只是單一見證，從四世紀到十二世紀經過許多人校改；它的讀法必須與蒲草紙抄本及其他抄本互相權衡。", "它在哪裡抄寫、由誰出資，或《使徒行傳》與書信中的任何事件是否發生過。自Tischendorf以來有一種看法，把它與君士坦丁向優西比烏訂製的五十部抄本聯繫起來（優西比烏，《君士坦丁傳》4.36），但沒有任何記錄證明這一聯繫；而且一封書信的準確抄本，見證的是它的文本，而不是文本所描述的歷史。" ], "debate": "來源：抄本中沒有任何記錄說明它最初在哪裡抄寫、為誰抄寫。一位後期校訂者在《以斯拉二書》和《以斯帖記》的卷末留下附註，說文本曾與一份極古老的抄本對照，而那份抄本經凱撒利亞的長老、殉道者潘菲魯斯（Pamphilus）校訂；這顯示本抄本在抄成數個世紀之後與凱撒利亞有關（Fenlon在1908年認為這位校訂者大概屬於七世紀）。凱撒利亞、埃及（常指亞歷山大）、羅馬和意大利南部，都曾被提出為它的抄寫地。自Tischendorf以來有一種看法，把它與君士坦丁向優西比烏訂製的五十部抄本聯繫起來（優西比烏，《君士坦丁傳》4.36），但沒有任何記錄證明這一聯繫。年代：字體把它定於四世紀，有時定於該世紀中葉，但按字體定年只是約略的。次序：梵蒂岡抄本和五世紀的亞歷山大抄本也把《希伯來書》放在《帖撒羅尼迦後書》之後，蒲草紙抄本46號把它放在《羅馬書》之後，現代西方的聖經則把它放在《腓利門書》之後。文本：《以弗所書》1:1的地名究竟原本就有、只是早期遺失，還是後來才加上，學者看法不一。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "把《希伯來書》讀作保羅的作品", "statement": "一些古代和現代的解經者，把《希伯來書》在保羅書信中的位置，視為支持保羅作者說的證據，或支持作者出自保羅圈子的證據。這種編排確實顯示，說希臘語的教會中，很大一部分把《希伯來書》與保羅書信歸在一起。同一時期的資料也記載了羅馬的疑慮，以及俄利根認為其措辭並非出自保羅的看法，因此單憑這個位置不能確定作者身份。" }, { "label": "君士坦丁的訂製", "statement": "自Tischendorf以來有一種看法，把西奈抄本（有時也包括梵蒂岡抄本）與君士坦丁為他新都的教會向優西比烏訂製的五十部羊皮紙聖經抄本聯繫起來（優西比烏，《君士坦丁傳》4.36）。本抄本的規模和年代使這種情況有可能成立，但沒有任何現存記錄把這部抄本與那批訂製連在一起；Fenlon（1908年）也指出，沒有跡象顯示它曾在君士坦丁堡。" }, { "label": "《以弗所書》作為傳閱書信", "statement": "包括本抄本原抄寫者文本在內的幾份早期見證，在《以弗所書》1:1都缺少地名。一些人據此認為，這封信原是寫給好幾間教會的。另一些人則認為這個地名是原有的，缺漏是早期抄寫中的改動，而本抄本自己的校訂者已把它改回。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-codex-sinaiticus-paul" }, { "id": "smith-acts-27-seamanship", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1848, "dateTo": 1848, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "reconstructed", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 27:12", "Acts 27:13-20", "Acts 27:21-26", "Acts 27:27-29", "Acts 27:39-44", "Acts 28:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.crete", "place.fair-havens", "place.malta" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. ix, note", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I question if modern science has ever done more to confirm an antient author than Captain Smyth's survey of St. Paul's Bay has done in the present case. The soundings alone would have furnished a conclusive test of the truth of the narrative.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. xiii", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "My knowledge of these subjects is only that of an amateur, yet a yacht sailor of more than thirty years' standing can scarcely fail to have acquired some skill in those principles of nautical science which are common to all times", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. xix", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "no man not a sailor could have written a narrative of a sea voyage so consistent in all its parts, unless from actual observation.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 60", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the dissertation on the wind Euroclydon I have stated my reasons for preferring the reading of the most ancient manuscripts and versions, Euro-aquilo, which must be between Eurus and Aquilo, or E. N. E.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 64", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Upon reaching it they availed themselves of the smooth water under its lee, to prepare the ship to resist the fury of the storm.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 81", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "on the 10th of August, 1810, the Lively, frigate, coming from the westward with a fair wind, made the land of Gozo, and the west end of Malta, before it was dark.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 82", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This was upon the point of Koura, the very spot where a ship driving from the east into St. Paul's Bay must have seen and heard the breakers, and the only spot where she could have done so.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 85", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The mean of these extremes is thirty-three miles in twenty-four hours, and the mean of both estimates is thirty-six and a half miles in twenty-four hours.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 87", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I admit that a coincidence so very close as this is, is to a certain extent, accidental, but it is an accident which could not have happened had there been any inaccuracy on the part of the author of the narrative", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "The Shipwreck, p. 102", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I am, however, inclined to think that the point of appulse was in the creek, which has no longer a sandy beach, but which must have had one formerly, although now worn away by the wasting action of the sea", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 326", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Smith tries to interpret the Greek words in that sense; but it must be observed that Luke never saw the harbour, and merely speaks on Paul's report of the professional opinion.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 329", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I must with Smith believe that cables were passed underneath round the ship transversely to hold the timbers together. This is a possible operation in the circumstances, and a useful one.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 334", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke seems to have had the landsman's idea that they drifted to and fro in the Mediterranean. A sailor would have known that they drifted in a uniform direction", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 341", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "one of the completest services that has ever been rendered to New Testament scholarship is James Smith's proof that all these circumstances are united in St. Paul's Bay. The only difficulty to which he has applied a rather violent solution is the sandy beach", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata", "locator": "Q6143365", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6143365", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "First Person Narrative in Acts 27-28 (Tyndale Bulletin 36)", "year": "1985", "view": "Rejects Robbins's proposed first-person sea-voyage genre and builds on Smith, while conceding that nautical precision alone shows only that the writer had made such a voyage." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Tests details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence, including records of the Alexandrian grain fleet, and presents Acts as a coherent product of its day (publisher's description). Its treatment of the voyage was not checked for this entry." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "Euraquilo and Melita (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1975", "view": "Defends the wind-name read by the oldest manuscripts at Acts 27:14 and the Malta identification, in reply to Acworth's case for Mljet." }, { "author": "A. Acworth", "work": "Where was St. Paul Shipwrecked? A Re-examination of the Evidence (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1973", "view": "Argues for Mljet, the Adriatic Melita, as the island of the shipwreck rather than Malta, as reported by Hemer (1985); the article itself was not checked." }, { "author": "Vernon K. Robbins", "work": "By Land and by Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages (in C. H. Talbert, ed., Perspectives on Luke-Acts)", "year": "1978", "view": "Argues that first-person plural narration was a convention of ancient sea-voyage accounts, so the we-passages need not indicate an eyewitness (thesis as reported and contested by Hemer 1985)." }, { "author": "Dennis R. MacDonald", "work": "The Shipwrecks of Odysseus and Paul (New Testament Studies 45)", "year": "1999", "view": "According to its abstract, argues that Acts 27-28 repeatedly points to Odysseus's shipwrecks in Odyssey books 5 and 12, and that Luke related Paul's shipwreck to them to exalt Paul and his God by comparison." }, { "author": "Heinz Warnecke", "work": "Die tatsächliche Romfahrt des Apostels Paulus (Stuttgarter Bibelstudien 127)", "year": "1987", "view": "Argues that the shipwreck took place on Kephallenia in western Greece rather than on Malta." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "Lionel Casson", "work": "Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World", "year": "1971", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "Brian M. Rapske", "work": "Acts, Travel and Shipwreck (in D. W. J. Gill and C. Gempf, eds., The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting)", "year": "1994", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q6143365", "label": "James Smith" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q20922918", "label": "St Paul's Bay" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q755984", "label": "St Paul's Island" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q213895", "label": "Gavdos" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "589858", "label": "Kaudos (island)" } ], "title": "James Smith對保羅航程與船難的航海分析（1848年）", "summary": "蘇格蘭遊艇航海家兼地質學家、喬丹希爾的James Smith，在《聖保羅的航程與船難》（1848年）中，以水文海圖、航行指南和海軍軍官的意見檢驗《使徒行傳》27章。他認為，那場烈風、在高大島背風處的躲避、用纜索兜住船身、漂流和測量水深，都與船在馬耳他的聖保羅灣靠岸相符。這顯示了航海上的連貫性，雖然部分依據取自《使徒行傳》本身。它不能證明作者身份，也不能證明每一件事。", "dating": "1848年（初版；後來的版本為1856、1866和1880年）", "currentLocation": "已出版的書籍；1848年初版已由Internet Archive根據哈佛學院圖書館的藏本數碼化", "establishes": [ "Smith把《使徒行傳》27:13–17的風暴重構為一場來自東北偏東的烈風。在《使徒行傳》27:14，他取最古老的抄本和譯本所載的風名，認為它指介於東風與東北風之間的風，而不取較晚的讀法。這場風把船從克里特中南部近海吹到高大島（今加夫多斯島）的背風處，船員在那裡得以把小艇收上船，並用纜索繞住船身。", "Smith根據兩位皇家海軍艦長的估算，取每日平均漂流約三十六英里半。按這個速度，一艘從高大島起頂風停航的船，會在略多於十三天內漂完到馬耳他庫拉角的476.6英里。這與《使徒行傳》27:27的第十四夜相符，而計算出的航向也與聖保羅灣的方位一致。", "Smith把先測得二十噚、再測得十五噚的水深（《使徒行傳》27:28）與Smyth艦長對聖保羅灣的測量對照，又引用1810年巡防艦Lively號的軍事法庭審訊：該艦的瞭望員先看見庫拉角的浪花，然後才看見陸地（《使徒行傳》27:27）。他把擱淺地點定在薩爾莫內塔島（聖保羅島）附近，並承認漂流數據的吻合部分出於偶然，而那條小海灣的沙灘已不復存在。", "Ramsay（1895年）稱Smith對聖保羅灣的論證是新約研究所曾得到的最完備貢獻之一，並在橫向兜綁船身的問題上支持他，但認為他以沙灘已消失來解釋的方案相當牽強。Ramsay也不接受Smith對有關非尼基和漂流的希臘文的解讀：從未見過非尼基的路加轉述了一段走樣的描述，而他寫到漂流時，用的是陸上人的觀念。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不是這次航程的獨立見證。Smith從敘事本身的地理推出風向，從十九世紀軍官的估算取得漂流速度，並採用傳統上位於馬耳他的終點。因此，這種吻合顯示的是記述與真實的風、海圖和海岸互相一致；它並沒有以外部證據證實每一個細節。", "它不能顯示路加是以目擊者身份寫作，也不能顯示航海檢驗範圍以外的事件確曾發生，例如《使徒行傳》27:21–26中天使的信息和保羅的保證。Smith聲稱，不是水手的人若沒有親身觀察，不可能寫得如此前後一致；這是從敘事的一致性得出的推論，也有人提出異議。連Ramsay也認為，路加對非尼基的描述是間接轉述，而他描寫漂流的方式就像陸上人。", "它不能確定確切的登岸地點，也不能解決每一個技術問題。Smith選定的小海灣需要一片已不存在的沙灘；而兜綁船身的方法和非尼基港口的朝向，都仍有爭議。" ], "debate": "從Ramsay到Colin Hemer，推崇Smith的人把敘事在航海上的連貫性，讀作親身報導的標記。另一些人回應說，以第一人稱敘述航海是一種文學慣例（Vernon Robbins），或說《使徒行傳》27–28章模仿奧德修斯的船難（Dennis MacDonald）。按這些讀法，準確性顯示的可能是航海知識，而非作者曾在船上。Hemer回應說，Robbins所舉的平行例子不足以確立這樣的慣例，但也承認，單憑航海上的精確，只能顯示作者曾經走過這樣的航程。技術問題也仍未解決：兜綁船身的纜索是橫繞還是縱繞船身、非尼基朝向哪一方，以及米利大（Melita）究竟是否就是馬耳他。Heinz Warnecke主張是凱法利尼亞島，A. Acworth和O. F. A. Meinardus則主張是姆列特島。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "文學慣例", "statement": "Vernon Robbins認為，第一人稱複數的敘述屬於古代航海記述的慣例。按這種讀法，Smith的檢驗顯示作者了解船隻和地中海的風如何運作，而不是顯示他曾在船上。Hemer回應說，Robbins的例子不足以確立這樣的文體。" }, { "label": "模仿荷馬", "statement": "Dennis MacDonald認為，《使徒行傳》27–28章一再指向奧德修斯的船難，與之共有航海意象、神明保證平安的應許，以及受島民歡迎的英雄，藉這種比較來高舉保羅和他的神。這樣，即使其中的地理是寫實的，敘事的形態仍是文學性的。" }, { "label": "另一個島", "statement": "Heinz Warnecke把船難地點定在希臘西部近海的凱法利尼亞島。另有一種較早的看法，曾被Smith反駁，後來由A. Acworth（1973年）和O. F. A. Meinardus重新提出，把米利大（Melita）定在亞得里亞海的姆列特島（Meleda）。馬耳他，特別是聖保羅灣，仍是多數人採納的認定。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-smith-acts-27-seamanship" }, { "id": "ramsay-acts-accuracy", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1895, "dateTo": 1896, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:49", "Acts 14:1-7", "Acts 14:11", "Acts 16:6", "Acts 18:23", "Galatians 1:2", "Galatians 3:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.iconium", "place.lystra", "place.derbe", "place.galatia", "place.pisidian-antioch" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. 1 §1 (Trustworthiness)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the contrary, I began with a mind unfavourable to it, for the ingenuity and apparent completeness of the Tübingen theory had at one time quite convinced me.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. 5 §6 (The Cities of Lycaonia)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.viii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "it was accurate at the period when Paul visited Lycaonia; that it was accurate at no other time except between 37 and 72 A.D.; and that its only meaning is to distinguish between the Roman part of Lycaonia and the non-Roman part ruled by Antiochus.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "Preface to the second edition (dated 25 March 1896)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "With the Galatian question the date and authorship of Acts are bound up: the more I study, the more clearly I see that it is impossible to reconcile the “North-Galatian theory” with the first-century origin and Lukan authorship of Acts", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item for William Mitchell Ramsay", "locator": "Q326308", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q326308.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. Ward Gasque", "work": "Sir William M. Ramsay: Archaeologist and New Testament Scholar", "year": "1966", "view": "A sympathetic survey. It counts the reliability of Luke-Acts, the South Galatian identification and the stress on historical context as Ramsay's lasting contributions. It reports that Ramsay's 1915 retelling made Acts 14:5-12 the first prompt for his change of mind, and it concedes that the South Galatian case cannot be proved to every scholar's satisfaction." }, { "author": "F. F. Bruce", "work": "Foreword to W. W. Gasque, Sir William M. Ramsay: Archaeologist and New Testament Scholar", "year": "1966", "view": "Says the nineteenth-century Ramsay, if inclined to overstate his case, had a good case to overstate, and that his later role as a popular apologist harmed his scholarly reputation." }, { "author": "Stephen Neill", "work": "The Interpretation of the New Testament 1861-1961", "year": "1964", "view": "As reported by Gasque, names two abiding results of Ramsay's work: his case for the accuracy of the Lukan writings and his South Galatian identification. Notes that many German scholars had little first-hand acquaintance with the archaeological evidence." }, { "author": "Ernst Haenchen", "work": "Die Apostelgeschichte (English translation: The Acts of the Apostles, 1971)", "year": "1956", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "C. K. Barrett", "work": "Luke the Historian in Recent Study", "year": "1961", "view": "According to Gasque, suggests a date for Acts as late as AD 95-115." }, { "author": "J. C. O'Neill", "work": "The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting", "year": "1961", "view": "Dates Acts to the second century. Gasque cites the book as an example of the position Ramsay had abandoned." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Tests details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence and presents Acts as a coherent product of its day (publisher's description). Secondary summaries report that it dates Acts to about AD 62; the chapters were not checked for this entry." }, { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "Saint Paul's Epistle to the Galatians", "year": "1865", "view": "The classic defence, in Ramsay's day, of the North Galatian view: Paul's Galatians were the Gaulish population of central Asia Minor (as summarised by Gasque; the first-edition preface is dated February 1865)." }, { "author": "James Moffatt", "work": "An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament", "year": "1911", "view": "Defends the North Galatian destination against Ramsay's South Galatian case (checked in the revised third edition of 1918). Gasque calls him Ramsay's faithful antagonist on this question." }, { "author": "F. H. Chase", "work": "The Galatia of the Acts (articles in The Expositor)", "year": "1893-1894", "view": "Criticised Ramsay's South Galatian argument. Ramsay credited this criticism with prompting the renewed work behind St Paul the Traveller." }, { "author": "Hans Dieter Betz", "work": "Galatians (Hermeneia)", "year": "1979", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q326308", "label": "William Mitchell Ramsay" } ], "title": "W. M. Ramsay的《旅行家聖保羅》（1895年）與《使徒行傳》準確性的論證", "summary": "亞伯丁的古典學者W. M. Ramsay在《旅行家聖保羅》（1895年）中寫道，他曾接受杜賓根學派的觀點，視《使徒行傳》為二世紀的作品。多年研究小亞細亞之後，他確信書中的地區用語符合一世紀的羅馬加拉太省，例如從以哥念逃往呂高尼一事（《使徒行傳》14:6）。在他的解讀成立之處，這些解讀顯示作者熟悉該地區；但它們不能證實每一件事，而他的年代區間和南加拉太說仍有爭議。", "dating": "1895年初版（獻詞日期為1895年9月17日，序言日期為9月23日）；引文已按第十版（Hodder and Stoughton，1907年）核對", "currentLocation": "已出版的書籍；第十版（Hodder and Stoughton，1907年）已由基督教經典電子圖書館（CCEL）數碼化", "establishes": [ "Ramsay在1895年寫道，杜賓根學說曾經令他完全信服，他也曾把《使徒行傳》當作二世紀的作品。他說，在他以《使徒行傳》作為研究小亞細亞地形、古蹟和社會的資料時，自己的看法逐漸改變。", "他主張《使徒行傳》14:6標示了一條真實的邊界。按他的說法，以哥念屬於加拉太省的弗呂家地區，而路司得和特庇則位於該省呂高尼的羅馬（「Galatic」）部分。他認為，這種描述只在公元37至72年間才準確。", "Ramsay認為，對《加拉太書》的南加拉太解讀，與《使徒行傳》源於一世紀並由路加撰寫的看法緊密相連。他關於加拉太的論證從一開始就受到質疑：先有Chase博士在《Expositor》（1893–94年）提出異議，後來又有James Moffatt。即使是持同情態度的評論者F. F. Bruce（1966年）也判斷，他傾向誇大自己的論證，儘管那是一個值得誇大的好論證。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能顯示《使徒行傳》中的事件、講辭或神蹟都如所敘述般發生。正確的邊界、官銜或地區，顯示作者熟悉背景，而不是每段情節都屬史實。", "Ramsay對自己改變看法的記述，證明的是他改變了看法，而不是對《使徒行傳》的獨立證實。按Gasque的概述，在他1915年的重述中，轉折點是《使徒行傳》14:5–12發生在呂高尼的情節。1895年的文本強調的卻是另一個爭論：保羅是經過北加拉太，還是經過呂高尼。", "它不能確定《加拉太書》的收信地在南加拉太，也不能確定《使徒行傳》成書較早並由路加撰寫。這三點都仍有爭議。" ], "debate": "有三個問題仍未解決。第一，準確的地方知識是指向保羅的一位同伴（Ramsay、Hemer），還是符合一位較晚、消息靈通、按神學意圖塑造事件的作者？學者為《使徒行傳》提出的年代，從六十年代初（Hemer），經普遍採納的八十年代，一直到二世紀（O'Neill）；據Gasque報告，Barrett容許的年代晚至95至115年。第二，保羅致信的加拉太人，是住在羅馬行省南部的城市，還是住在北面族群意義上的加拉太（Lightfoot、Moffatt）？第三，Ramsay的37至72年區間，建基於羅馬治下的呂高尼與安條克王治下的呂高尼之間的劃分；既然他自己承認，關於該省各地區的證據很少，這個區間是否真如他所說那樣具決定性？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "一位較晚而消息靈通的作者", "statement": "準確的地理和行政用語，可能來自資料來源、旅行知識，或沿用已久的地區用法。因此，它們符合一位在一世紀晚期或更晚寫作、為神學目的塑造故事的作者。按這種看法，Ramsay顯示的是作者熟悉小亞細亞，而不是他曾是保羅的同伴。" }, { "label": "北加拉太說", "statement": "J. B. Lightfoot是Ramsay時代這一觀點的經典辯護者，他認為保羅致信的加拉太人是小亞細亞中部的高盧族人，保羅在《使徒行傳》16:6和18:23的旅程中探訪過他們。Moffatt堅持這一觀點，反對Ramsay；據Gasque報告，德國學術界大多也是如此。這一觀點的辯護者同樣以《使徒行傳》來確定保羅的路線，因此Ramsay聲稱他們的觀點無法與一部一世紀、出自路加之手的《使徒行傳》相容，只是他自己的推論。" }, { "label": "Ramsay的論點被修正，而非被推翻", "statement": "Gasque和Hemer等持同情態度的後繼者，保留了他以碑文和地理檢驗《使徒行傳》的方法。Gasque判斷，證據較支持南加拉太說，但無法證明到令每位學者都滿意。Bruce在為Gasque著作所寫的序言中判斷，Ramsay後來作為通俗護教者的角色損害了他的學術聲譽。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-ramsay-acts-accuracy" }, { "id": "lukan-titles-overview", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": -22, "dateTo": 160, "corpusReferences": [ "IG XIV 601" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:6-12", "Acts 16:12-40", "Acts 17:5-9", "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 19:29-41", "Acts 21:30-40", "Acts 22:24-29", "Acts 23:10-30", "Acts 24:22", "Acts 28:7-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.sergius-paulus", "person.gallio", "person.claudius", "person.jason", "person.lysias", "person.publius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.cyprus", "place.paphos", "place.achaia", "place.corinth", "place.macedonia", "place.thessalonica", "place.philippi", "place.ephesus", "place.malta", "place.jerusalem" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1917", "locator": "54.4.1 (22 BC)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It was at this time that he restored to the people both Cyprus and Gallia Narbonensis as districts no longer needing the presence of his armies; and thus proconsuls began to be sent to those provinces also.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 1.76 (AD 15)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=1:chapter=76", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, on complaining of their burdens, were, it was decided, to be relieved for a time from pro-consular government and to be transferred to the emperor.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924", "locator": "60.24.1 (AD 44)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, which ever since the reign of Tiberius had been assigned to governors directly appointed, Claudius now made to depend upon the lot once more.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. X sect. 3, p. 218 (praetors at Philippi)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title Praetors was not technically accurate, but was frequently employed as a courtesy title for the supreme magistrates of a Roman colony; and, as usual, Luke moves on the plane of educated conversation in such matters, and not on the plane of rigid technical accuracy.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "Hist. eccl. 4.15.27 (quoting Mart. Pol. 12.2)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "they cried out and asked the Asiarch Philip to let a lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said that it was not lawful for him, since he had closed the games.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII sect. 5, p. 281 (Asiarchs)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Asiarchs, or High Priests of Asia, were the heads of the imperial, political-religious organisation of the province in the worship of \"Rome and the Emperors\"", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII sect. 5, p. 281 (town clerk)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Clerk was probably the most important official in Ephesus, and therefore in close contact with the court of the proconsul, who generally resided in that city", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XIV sect. 9, p. 343 (Malta)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title \"first\" is technically correct in Melita: it has inscriptional authority.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "kaibel-ig-xiv", "author": "G. Kaibel", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae XIV: Inscriptiones Siciliae et Italiae", "year": "1890", "locator": "IG XIV 601 (p. 112)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 5.243-244 (Whiston 5.5.8; his 'legion' renders a general Greek word for a military unit)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=5:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "it had passages down to them both, through which the guard (for there always lay in this tower a Roman legion) went several ways among the cloisters, with their arms, on the Jewish festivals, in order to watch the people, that they might not there attempt to make any innovations", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.136 (Whiston 20.6.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He also gave order that Celer the tribune should be carried back to Jerusalem, and should be drawn through the city in the sight of all the people, and then should be slain.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Ernest DeWitt Burton", "work": "The Politarchs (American Journal of Theology 2)", "year": "1898", "view": "Collected the known politarch inscriptions, chiefly Macedonian with a few from Thrace, Bithynia, the Bosporus and Egypt and none from Greece proper. Found the office at Thessalonica from Augustus to the mid-second century, and noted that the form used in Acts was otherwise unknown in surviving literature, a related form appearing in Aeneas Tacticus." }, { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part III: Priene, Iasos and Ephesos", "year": "1890", "view": "From the Ephesian inscriptions, including the Salutaris bequest of AD 104, found the clerk of the people drafting decrees with the strategoi and managing public business, and judged Acts 19:35-41 one more instance of Luke's accuracy with titles. Treated Asiarch as another title of the provincial high priest of Asia." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Writing as a Roman historian, argued that Acts' picture of provincial government, civic and colonial magistrates and legal procedure fits the first century AD closely, and judged its historicity in such matters strongly confirmed." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Examined numerous details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence, official titles among them, presenting Acts as a coherent and consistent product of its own day; defended Lukan authorship and a date before AD 70." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Compared Acts with ancient novels, arguing that it shares their blend of edification and entertainment; noted that many novels also feature real persons and historiographical techniques, and treated historicity as a question separate from genre." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dated Acts to about AD 115, arguing among other points that its author knew Josephus's later writings, so accurate period detail is compatible with a late date." }, { "author": "Stephan Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "Argued that the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 call into question their identification with the high priests of the provincial imperial cult, and that Acts' Ephesian local colour is a source less for Paul's time than for Luke's own." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q40309", "label": "Acts of the Apostles" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2912782", "label": "proconsul" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7210123", "label": "Politarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q727844", "label": "Asiarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q59671", "label": "lictor" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q849288", "label": "military tribune" } ], "title": "《使徒行傳》中的官銜：逐城考察", "summary": "《使徒行傳》為它描述的每個地方都給出相符的官銜：塞浦路斯和亞該亞的省長、帖撒羅尼迦的地方官（politarch）、腓立比殖民地帶著差役（lictor）的裁判官（praetor）、以弗所的亞細亞首領（Asiarch）和書記、馬耳他的「第一人」，以及耶路撒冷的羅馬千夫長。碑文和古代作家為其中大部分提供了證據；在腓立比，「裁判官」是一種禮貌性的用法。這顯示作者具備良好的地方知識或資料來源；但不能證明每件事都發生過，也不能確定《使徒行傳》的年代。", "dating": "這些用法的證據始於公元前22年（塞浦路斯重歸省長治理），延至公元二世紀中葉（士每拿的亞細亞首領腓力，按通常定年約為公元155至160年；以弗所的法令延至公元160年）。部分轉述這些用法的資料年代較晚（卡西烏斯．狄奧，三世紀初；優西比烏，四世紀初）。按通常的年代表，《使徒行傳》中的這些場景約在公元46至60年。", "currentLocation": "不適用：本項是多份文本和碑文的概覽；各實物的所在地，請見相關連結項目。", "establishes": [ "《使徒行傳》中塞浦路斯和亞該亞的省長（《使徒行傳》13:7；18:12），與兩省當時的地位相符。奧古斯都在公元前22年把塞浦路斯歸還給人民，此後由省長治理（狄奧，54.4.1）。亞該亞在公元15年改歸皇帝管轄，公元44年在克勞第治下重歸抽籤選出的省長（塔西佗，《編年史》1.76；狄奧，60.24.1），早於通常定在五十年代初的迦流省長任期。", "Politarch（地方官，《使徒行傳》17:6和17:8）主要是馬其頓的城市官銜。Burton在1898年指出，在《使徒行傳》以外，這個詞的這種形式當時只見於碑文（戰術家埃涅阿斯的著作中有一個相關的形式）。他所列的例子大多來自馬其頓，少數來自色雷斯、庇推尼、博斯普魯斯和埃及，希臘本土則一個也沒有；在帖撒羅尼迦，這些例子從奧古斯都時期延續到二世紀中葉。", "在羅馬殖民地腓立比（《使徒行傳》16:12），《使徒行傳》用希臘文中指裁判官（praetor）的常用詞稱呼當地的官長，並寫到他們手下的差役（lictor，《使徒行傳》16:20–38）。Ramsay判斷，「裁判官」並非技術上準確的官銜，而是常用於殖民地最高官長的禮貌性稱號；路加是「在受過教育者交談的層面上」寫作，而非拘泥於嚴格的技術準確性。", "在以弗所，《使徒行傳》中的亞細亞首領（Asiarch，《使徒行傳》19:31）帶著一個在《使徒行傳》以外也有證據的行省官銜：優西比烏所引的《坡旅甲殉道記》（《教會史》4.15.27）記載，士每拿的群眾要求亞細亞首領腓力放獅子去攻擊坡旅甲。Ramsay判斷，書記很可能是以弗所最重要的官員；Hicks於1890年出版的以弗所碑文集顯示，書記負責草擬法令和處理公共事務。", "在馬耳他，一方希臘文碑文（IG XIV 601）稱一位羅馬騎士為protos Melitaion，即「馬耳他人中的第一人」；Kaibel的註釋把它與《使徒行傳》28:7比較。在耶路撒冷，約瑟夫斯說，一支羅馬部隊一直駐紮在安東尼亞堡，堡內有通道下到聖殿柱廊，部隊在節期時使用這些通道（《猶太戰記》5.243–244）。他也提到克勞第在位時猶太的一位千夫長（chiliarch）凱勒（Celer）（《猶太古史》20.136）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "某個場景確如敘述那樣發生。帖撒羅尼迦或馬耳他官員的官銜正確，並不能證實耶孫的家遭襲擊，或部百流的父親得醫治；每段情節都需要個別評估。", "《使徒行傳》的年代或作者——單憑這些官銜並不能確定。這些官銜大多沿用了好幾代（帖撒羅尼迦的地方官延續到二世紀，亞細亞首領到二世紀中葉仍然存在），因此一位擁有良好資料來源的較晚作者，也能把它們寫對。", "一貫的技術精確性。按Ramsay的判斷，在腓立比，「裁判官」是禮貌性稱號，而不是該殖民地的正式官銜；《使徒行傳》在那裡也用了一個泛指統治者的詞（《使徒行傳》16:19）。這種準確性屬於消息靈通、受過教育者的用語，而不是法律術語。", "每位具名官員都已得到獨立確認，或每個官銜都只有一個固定含義。是否有碑文提到省長士求．保羅、亞細亞首領究竟是什麼，以及馬耳他的「第一人」是正式職位還是榮譽地位（Kaibel的註釋只說，這裡指的是一種明確的市民殊榮），都仍有爭議。" ], "debate": "Ramsay、Sherwin-White和Hemer把一連串準確的地方細節（官銜也在其中）視為累積的證據，表明《使徒行傳》建基於早期而消息靈通的知識；Ramsay主張路加是保羅的同伴，Hemer則為路加作者身份及公元70年以前的成書年代辯護。Pervo回應說，古代小說同樣使用真實人物和史學寫作技巧，並把《使徒行傳》定於約115年；Witetschek則認為，書中以弗所的地方色彩，與其說是保羅時代的證據，不如說更多是路加自己時代的證據。一些較窄的問題仍未解決，特別是亞細亞首領是否就是亞細亞的大祭司（這是Ramsay的看法，Hicks在1890年也持同樣看法），抑或是別的職位；Witetschek的這一疑問正是從《使徒行傳》19:31本身引出的。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "消息靈通的同伴", "statement": "一系列正確且切合各地的官銜，反映作者曾與保羅同行，或親身熟悉這些城市，正如Ramsay和Hemer所主張的。這與「我們」段落相符，但這是從準確性得出的推論，而不是作者身份的證明。" }, { "label": "擁有良好資料來源的較晚作者", "statement": "一位一世紀晚期或二世紀早期的作者，若取材於旅行筆記、當地消息提供者或更早的記述，就能重現在他自己時代仍然通行的官銜。按這種看法，這些官銜所擔保的，與其說是較早的成書年代，不如說是資料來源的質素，或作者自己的時代（Pervo；Witetschek）。" }, { "label": "文學寫實", "statement": "古代小說同樣使用真實的人物、地點和史學寫作技巧，因此正確的地方色彩顯示作者的能力，但不能單憑它把歷史與虛構區分開來。每段情節都必須按其本身的證據來判斷。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hant/explore/evidence#evidence-lukan-titles-overview" } ], "contentDigest": "982315a8b3fd27193b4b60c738ae5888a5ffa74b4fd3df5f7539c9732ccc4098" }