{ "$schema": "https://paulineletters.com/data/agent/commons/v1/external-evidence.schema.json", "schemaVersion": "1.0", "version": "1.0.0", "dataset": "external-evidence", "locale": "zh-Hans", "title": "新约以外关于《使徒行传》与保罗书信的证据", "description": "与《使徒行传》及这些书信相关的碑文、钱币、遗址、抄本、犹太与罗马作家，以及早期基督教作者；每一项都说明它能确立什么、不能确立什么，以及解释者在哪些地方看法不同。", "method": "先依据原始资料和编目记录起草，再经独立复核：每段引文都出自公有领域译本，并已在其所在页面上核对相符（见核验记录）；编目号均已查证；另有一轮对抗式审查，检查是否有过度主张。现代学术研究只注明到著作层级。经文只注明出处。", "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "attribution": "Pauline Letters — https://paulineletters.com", "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/data/agent/commons/v1/external-evidence.json", "scripture": "References only. No Bible translation text is included; cite the reference and read it in a licensed or public-domain edition.", "itemCount": 46, "items": [ { "id": "temple-warning-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -23, "dateTo": 70, "corpusReferences": [ "OGIS 598", "CIIP I.1 no. 2", "CIJ II 1400", "IIP JERU0598", "IIP JERU0599" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 21:26-36", "Acts 21:28-29", "Acts 20:4", "Acts 23:26", "Acts 24:6", "Acts 24:18", "Acts 25:8", "Acts 26:21", "Ephesians 2:14-15", "Romans 15:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.trophimus", "person.lysias", "person.tertullus", "person.josephus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.ephesus", "place.judea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 5.193-194 (Whiston 5.5.2)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "there was a partition made of stone all round, whose height was three cubits: its construction was very elegant; upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another, declaring the law of purity, some in Greek, and some in Roman letters, that \"no foreigner should go within that sanctuary\"", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.124-126 (Whiston 6.2.4)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Have not we given you leave to kill such as go beyond it, though he were a Roman?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 15.417 (Whiston 15.11.5)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the midst of which, and not far from it, was the second, to be gone up to by a few steps: this was encompassed by a stone wall for a partition, with an inscription, which forbade any foreigner to go in under pain of death.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Temple Warning inscription (Q16934222)", "locator": "Q16934222", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q16934222.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Elias J. Bickerman", "work": "The Warning Inscriptions of Herod's Temple, Jewish Quarterly Review 37", "year": "1947", "view": "Assigns the notices to Herod's temple. The Inscriptions of Israel/Palestine records of both copies take their text and translation from this article." }, { "author": "Hannah M. Cotton, Leah Di Segni, Werner Eck, Benjamin Isaac et al. (eds.)", "work": "Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae, vol. I: Jerusalem, Part 1", "year": "2010", "view": "Edits the warning inscription from Herod's temple as no. 2, covering both copies, in its section of religious and public inscriptions from Jerusalem before AD 70." }, { "author": "Stephen R. Llewelyn and Dionysia van Beek", "work": "Reading the Temple Warning as a Greek Visitor, Journal for the Study of Judaism 42", "year": "2011", "view": "The Greek is not translation Greek. A Greek-speaking visitor would read the warning in terms of Hellenistic law, and the architecture of the outer court would support that reading. Such a visitor would take the warning as royal rather than priestly in authority." }, { "author": "Wilhelm Dittenberger", "work": "Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, vol. 2", "year": "1905", "view": "Edits the Istanbul stone alongside the parallels in Josephus. Quotes Mommsen's argument that the Romans had the notices cut after AD 6. Notes that the stone says hieron, a wider term, where Josephus speaks of the hagion." }, { "author": "J. Armitage Robinson", "work": "St Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians", "year": "1903", "view": "Reads the wall image of Ephesians 2:14 as an allusion to the temple balustrade and its warning stones. Links the barrier to the charge about Trophimus in Acts 21:29." }, { "author": "Charles Clermont-Ganneau", "work": "Discovery of a Tablet from Herod's Temple (PEF Quarterly Statement)", "year": "1871", "view": "The discoverer. Holds that the tablet follows Josephus's wording closely and sheds light on the riot of Acts 21." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q16934222", "label": "Temple Warning inscription" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" } ], "title": "耶路撒冷的圣殿警告铭文", "summary": "两块出自耶路撒冷大希律圣殿的希腊文告示，一块完整（现藏伊斯坦布尔），一块残缺（现藏以色列博物馆），禁止任何非犹太人越过内院四周的屏障，并警告擅入者要为自己的死负责。结合约瑟夫斯的描述，这些告示使《使徒行传》21:28–29中针对保罗的指控变得可以理解，也显出其严重性；但告示没有提到任何人，也不能证明指控属实。", "dating": "刻于大希律重建圣殿（约公元前23至前19年动工）至圣殿于公元70年被毁之间的某个时间。铭文目录把两份副本都定为公元前23年至公元70年；确切的刻制日期不详。", "currentLocation": "伊斯坦布尔考古博物馆（完整石碑，1871年发现）；耶路撒冷的以色列博物馆（IAA 1936-989）（残片）", "establishes": [ "大希律圣殿的内院四周设有屏障，屏障上立有希腊文告示。告示禁止任何非犹太人（allogenes）进入圣所四周的栏杆和围墙之内，并警告被抓获的擅入者要为自己的死负责。现存一份完整副本和一块残片。", "约瑟夫斯描述了这道屏障及其以死刑为后盾的禁令（《犹太古史》15.417），说告示用希腊文和拉丁文写成（《犹太战记》5.193–194），又借提图斯之口声称，罗马允许犹太人处死擅入者，即使擅入者是罗马人也不例外（《犹太战记》6.124–126）。", "在《使徒行传》21:28–29中，保罗被控带外族人进入圣殿、污秽了圣殿，依据是人们以为他带了来自以弗所的特罗非摩进去。这项指控援引的是一条真实且公开张贴的规定：外族人越过屏障即属死罪。这有助于解释群众的暴力行为（《使徒行传》21:30–31）。驻军介入了由此引发的骚乱（《使徒行传》21:31–36）。", "约瑟夫斯把屏障定位在从外院上到内院的通道上，并说告示禁止异族人再往前走（《犹太战记》5.193–194；《犹太古史》15.417）。因此，所指控的罪行是带外族人越过屏障，而不是把外族人带进圣殿范围这件事本身。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能证明保罗曾带他来自亚西亚的同伴特罗非摩（《使徒行传》20:4）或任何其他外族人越过屏障。《使徒行传》把这项指控呈现为人们见他们一同在城里而作出的推断（《使徒行传》21:29）；保罗否认自己有任何干犯圣殿的事（《使徒行传》24:18；《使徒行传》25:8）。帖土罗在腓力斯面前重复这项指控（《使徒行传》24:6），保罗也回忆自己在圣殿里被抓（《使徒行传》26:21）。", "铭文没有提到任何个人。它们证实这条规定的存在及其严重性，却不能证实逮捕本身或《使徒行传》21至26章的其他细节，例如那位指挥官所起的作用；《使徒行传》后来称他为革老丢．吕西亚（《使徒行传》23:26）。", "石碑上的刑罚针对的是擅入的外族人；对带外族人进去的犹太人，碑文没有规定任何刑罚。因此，单凭这块石碑，无法解释群众为何攻击保罗本人。", "它不能解决两个问题：《以弗所书》2:14是否暗指这道屏障；以及死亡警告指的是法庭判决、被默许的暴民暴力，还是神的惩罚。" ], "debate": "有几个问题仍未解决。告示由谁、在何时设立：大希律的建造者、祭司，还是公元6年以后的罗马当局？最后一种是Mommsen的看法（见OGIS 598所引），其依据是约瑟夫斯所报道的拉丁文版告示（无一存世）以及提图斯的话。“要为自己的死负责”是指由法庭处决、被默许的暴民行为，还是神的惩罚？提图斯的演说出自约瑟夫斯手笔，在多大程度上反映了罗马的实际政策？最后，《以弗所书》2:14中墙的意象是暗指这道屏障，还是指律法（《以弗所书》2:15）？这个问题部分取决于这封书信有争议的作者归属与写作日期。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "背景准确，但不证实事件", "statement": "这条规定广为人知：约瑟夫斯不止一次提到它，而且它以希腊文张贴在圣殿。与事件有一定距离的作者也可能正确描绘场景，因此这种吻合显示《使徒行传》熟悉圣殿，却不能证实那场暴动和逮捕。保罗的书信确实表明，他预料会遭遇来自犹太不信之人的危险（《罗马书》15:30–31），但并不表明他预料到那场暴动本身。" }, { "label": "《以弗所书》2:14指律法，而非栏杆", "statement": "按这种读法，墙的意象代表带着诫命的律法，下一节说这律法已被废弃（《以弗所书》2:15）。《以弗所书》描写墙的用词也不同于石碑（tryphaktos、peribolos）和约瑟夫斯（dryphaktos），因此圣殿屏障是Robinson（1903）等解释者所提供的例证。如果《以弗所书》写于公元70年之后，屏障当时已被毁。" }, { "label": "告示出自罗马人之手", "statement": "Dittenberger在OGIS 598引述了Theodor Mommsen的观点：犹太于公元6年成为行省之后，罗马人下令刻制了这些告示。他指出约瑟夫斯所报道、与希腊文版本并列的拉丁文版本（至今未发现），以及约瑟夫斯书中提图斯的话。另一些人则把告示视为大希律重建工程的一部分。无论按哪种看法，这些告示在保罗在世时都立在那里。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/temple-warning-inscription" }, { "id": "ephesus-theatre", "kind": "site", "dateFrom": -200, "dateTo": 117, "corpusReferences": [ "I.Ephesos 27", "SEG 15, 698", "SEG 41, 974", "GIBM III 481" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:23-41", "Acts 19:29-31", "Acts 19:35-41", "Acts 19:39", "1 Corinthians 15:32", "1 Corinthians 16:8-9", "2 Corinthians 1:8-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius", "person.gaius", "person.aristarchus", "person.alexander" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Theater of Ephesus", "locator": "Pleiades 818256726 (connected to Ephesus 599612)", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/818256726/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Theater (Ephesus)", "locator": "Q15723477", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q15723477.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII, sec. 5, p. 277", "url": "https://archive.org/download/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The scene which follows is the most instructive picture of society in an Asian city at this period that has come down to us.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "philostratus-conybeare", "author": "Philostratus", "work": "The Life of Apollonius of Tyana", "translator": "F. C. Conybeare", "year": "1912", "locator": "VA 4.10", "url": "https://archive.org/download/lifeofapollonius00philuoft/lifeofapollonius00philuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And with these words he led the population entire to the theatre, where the image of the Averting god has been set up.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Peter Ruggendorfer and Friedrich Krinzinger (eds.)", "work": "Das Theater von Ephesos: Archäologischer Befund, Funde und Chronologie (Forschungen in Ephesos)", "year": "2017", "view": "Traces the theatre through eight building or usage phases. Dates the Hellenistic stage building to the first half of the 2nd century BC but finds that the auditorium's original date and shape cannot be determined. The most extensive Roman changes (stage building, extended upper seating) are placed under Domitian, with the south wing finished under Trajan, and the whole stage facade is assigned to the late Flavian period rather than to AD 66. Only limited early-imperial work is documented before then." }, { "author": "Gudrun Styhler-Aydın", "work": "Der Zuschauerraum des Theaters von Ephesos: Baubefund und architekturhistorische Analyse", "year": "2022", "view": "The Hellenistic theatre was already one of the large theatres of Asia Minor. Building from the 1st into the first half of the 2nd century AD made it one of the largest Roman-period auditoria in the region, with a diameter close to 150 m." }, { "author": "Rudolf Heberdey, George Niemann and Wilhelm Wilberg", "work": "Das Theater in Ephesos (Forschungen in Ephesos II)", "year": "1912", "view": "The first full Austrian publication of the theatre. As reported in the 2017 volume, it reconstructed the Hellenistic auditorium as already three-tiered, seating about 23,000, and dated the first stage-facade storeys to AD 66 from an architrave inscription." }, { "author": "J. T. Wood", "work": "Discoveries at Ephesus", "year": "1877", "view": "Excavated the theatre, computed its seating at 24,500, and found the Salutaris inscription in its southern entrance." }, { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part III: Priene, Iasos and Ephesos", "year": "1890", "view": "Edits the Salutaris bequest as no. 481 from inscribed marble blocks that formed the wall on the right flank of the theatre's south entrance, most still in their original courses when found. Notes that its documents regulate the carrying of the images to and from the theatre and reserve a place for the city's boys at assemblies held there." }, { "author": "Guy MacLean Rogers", "work": "The Sacred Identity of Ephesos: Foundation Myths of a Roman City", "year": "1991", "view": "Edits and translates the Salutaris foundation (I.Ephesos 27) and argues that its processions of images from the Artemision into the theatre at assemblies and festivals expressed an Ephesian civic identity centred on Artemis." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Judged the author of Acts very well informed about Ephesian municipal institutions: the town clerk's control of the gathering, the theatre as the assembly's usual meeting place (citing a Salutaris inscription), and the appeal to a properly convened assembly. Argued that a scene in which the civic assembly still mattered belongs to an era that did not outlast the Antonines." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues that Acts' many local and institutional details, including those of the Ephesian episode, reflect accurate knowledge of first-century conditions and support the general reliability of its narrative." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Reads Acts' riots and crowd scenes as entertaining literary set-pieces comparable to the ancient novel. On this reading a vivid, accurate setting is not by itself evidence that the event happened." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q15723477", "label": "Theater (Ephesus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "818256726", "label": "Theater of Ephesus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q47611", "label": "Ephesus" } ], "title": "以弗所大剧场", "summary": "以弗所大剧场依Panayır Dağı的山坡凿建而成，是《使徒行传》19:29所记群众聚集的场所，真实存在，至今仍可看见。它在希腊化时期很可能已能容纳大批群众；剧场内的一则铭文表明，到公元104年时，公民大会已在那里举行。遗址证实的是场景，而不是那场骚乱；而且现今可见的遗迹大多晚于保罗的时代。", "dating": "希腊化时期的舞台建筑：公元前二世纪上半叶（观众席最初的年代和形制无法确定）；罗马时期的主要扩建：图密善和图拉真在位期间（约公元81至117年）；Salutaris铭文：公元104年", "currentLocation": "原址：土耳其伊兹密尔省塞尔丘克的以弗所考古遗址；Salutaris铭文部分仍在原址，部分石块藏于大英博物馆", "establishes": [ "早在保罗居留之前很久，以弗所就有一座依Panayır Dağı山坡而建的剧场。其舞台建筑可追溯至公元前二世纪上半叶，是小亚细亚最大的希腊化时期舞台建筑之一，由此推想观众席的规模也很大，但确切大小不详。", "Salutaris铭文（I.Ephesos 27，公元104年）刻在剧场南入口的墙上，规定在每次法定的公民大会时，把亚底米和其他人物的像从她的神庙抬进剧场陈设。到那时，剧场既是公民大会的会场，也是敬拜亚底米的舞台，这与《使徒行传》19:23–41的场景相符。", "遗址和铭文从以弗所本地制度的角度，说明了《使徒行传》所作的对比：一边是聚集在剧场里的群众，一边是城里的书记所指出的合法召集的大会（《使徒行传》19:39）。", "如今游客所见的大部分建筑，包括舞台立面和扩建的上层座位（直径近150米），属于一次主要定年于图密善和图拉真在位期间（约公元81至117年）的扩建，晚于保罗。五十年代中期，这座建筑仍是较早的希腊化时期剧场，加上一些帝国早期的改动。", "一部三世纪的传奇叙事写到阿波罗尼乌斯带领以弗所全城居民进入剧场（斐洛斯特拉图斯《阿波罗尼乌斯传》4.10）。这份资料年代较晚，也不是《使徒行传》的独立证据，但它表明人们记得剧场是全城聚集之处。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能独立证实《使徒行传》19:23–41的骚乱确曾发生，也不能证实其中任何细节：低米丢、该犹和亚里达古被抓、亚历山大，或长达两小时的呼喊。剧场出土的任何东西都没有提到保罗或那场骚乱。", "各种容量数字（Wood本人在1877年算出的24,500人；2017年奥地利专著中罗马时期cavea的约20,000人；Pleiades所给的最多25,000人）描述的是扩建后的罗马建筑，或依据的是复原推算。它们不能告诉我们五十年代中期剧场能容纳多少人，或当时有多少人在场；《使徒行传》也没有给出人数。", "Salutaris铭文比保罗的居留晚约五十年，而且用来指定期大会的希腊文形容词与《使徒行传》19:39所用的不同。它说明的是城市的惯例，而不是五十年代的事件。此外，尽管一些通俗的复述这样讲，《使徒行传》并没有说保罗进入剧场或在剧场讲话（《使徒行传》19:30–31）。" ], "debate": "有两个问题仍未解决。第一，保罗时代的建筑是什么样子。奥地利的研究把罗马时期的主要扩建和舞台立面定于图密善和图拉真时期，而较早的研究则把立面最初几层定于公元66年；2017年的发掘报告也认为，希腊化时期观众席的年代和形制无法确定，因此当时的容量并不确定。第二，准确的场景意味着什么。Sherwin-White和Hemer认为，精确的城市细节是消息灵通的传统的标志。Pervo则把这段情节读作精心铺陈的文学场面；也有人指出，后来一位知情的作者也能提供这类地方色彩，因此场景本身不能证实那场骚乱。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "真实骚乱的准确场景", "statement": "路加采用了关于以弗所一场真实危机的可靠资料。剧场作为集会场所、有关大会的用语、城里的书记和亚西亚首领，都符合帝国早期的以弗所（Sherwin-White、Hemer）；Ramsay称这一场景是现存最能说明亚西亚城市社会面貌的图景。保罗的书信提到在以弗所和亚西亚遭遇的严重危险（《哥林多前书》15:32；《哥林多前书》16:8–9；《哥林多后书》1:8–10），却从未提到剧场骚乱。" }, { "label": "熟悉舞台上的文学场面", "statement": "这段情节大体上是路加的戏剧性创作，类似Pervo拿来与古代小说相比的那些群众场面。剧场、对亚底米的敬拜和城市公职，都是以弗所公开而长期存在的特征，到公元104年仍很显著；因此，一位知情的作者无需特定的资料来源，也能把场景设在那里。按这种看法，准确的场景既不能证实事件，也不能确定《使徒行传》的年代。" }, { "label": "确有冲突，场景经过创作", "statement": "一种折中的看法认为，这段记述背后确有一场真实的骚乱，因为保罗的书信证实他在以弗所遭遇严重危险；但场景及其中的讲话是路加创作的。按这种看法，场景支持一个关于冲突的传统，却不能证实其细节。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-ephesus-theatre" }, { "id": "erastus-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 31, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.3 232", "AE 1930, 118", "EDH HD025815", "EDCS-32001186", "TM 177152" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 16:23", "Acts 19:22", "2 Timothy 4:20", "1 Corinthians 1:26" ], "personIds": [ "person.erastus", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (record last updated 2013-05-24, Cowey)", "work": "EDH inscription record: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus", "year": "2013", "locator": "EDH HD025815", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD025815", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss / Slaby", "work": "EDCS monument record (JSON data endpoint)", "locator": "EDCS-32001186", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/320/32001186.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "author": "Trismegistos", "work": "TM text relations data service", "locator": "TM 177152", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/177152", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Corinthus/Korinthos", "locator": "Pleiades 570182", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/570182/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae, or, The Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul", "year": "1790 (Cambridge, Mass. edition, 1806)", "locator": "ch. II (Epistle to the Romans), No. II", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horaepaulinaeort00pale/horaepaulinaeort00pale_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Erastus was one of those who had attended St. Paul in his travels, Acts xix. 22; and when those travels had, upon some occasion, brought our apostle and his train to Corinth, Erastus staid there, for no reason so probable as that it was his home.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Henry J. Cadbury", "work": "\"Erastus of Corinth,\" Journal of Biblical Literature 50", "year": "1931", "view": "Read the civic title in Romans as rendering arcarius rei publicae, a municipal post held by slaves or men of servile origin, and judged identification with the paving aedile improbable and close to impossible, chiefly because one career was unlikely to include both posts. Did not treat the objection that a Christian could not serve as aedile as decisive. Warned that the three New Testament Erasti are not certainly one person and that the aedile may be a later Corinthian." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Corpus edition of no. 232. As summarised by Gill (1989), Kent dated the pavement to about the middle of the first century and judged the identification with the Erastus of Romans sound. He cited the rarity of the cognomen at Corinth and argued that the civic title in Romans describes a Corinthian aedile's functions." }, { "author": "Gerd Theissen", "work": "The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth (English translation)", "year": "1982", "view": "As reported by Gill (1989) and Clarke (1991), equates the civic title in Romans with a junior office such as quaestor rather than aedile. Allows the identification as possible without being convinced." }, { "author": "Victor P. Furnish", "work": "Corinth in Paul's Time: What Can Archaeology Tell Us?, Biblical Archaeology Review 15", "year": "1988", "view": "As reported by Gill (1989), follows Theissen in proposing that Erastus was first quaestor and later aedile, and accepts that the aedile is the Erastus whom Paul and the author of 2 Timothy mention." }, { "author": "David W. J. Gill", "work": "\"Erastus the Aedile,\" Tyndale Bulletin 40", "year": "1989", "view": "The evidence allows neither a certain identification nor a certain rejection. The lack of space for filiation and tribe suggests the aedile was a freedman, and the civic title in Romans could correspond to aedile at Corinth. Reports the complete slab found in situ in 1929 in the paved area east of the stage building, with other pieces found in 1928 and 1947." }, { "author": "Andrew D. Clarke", "work": "\"Another Corinthian Erastus Inscription,\" Tyndale Bulletin 42", "year": "1991", "view": "Draws attention to a second-century dedication, first published by Pallas and Dantes, that probably names an Erastus at Corinth, and rejects identifying that man with Paul's associate. Holds that identifying the first-century aedile remains a significant possibility." }, { "author": "John K. Goodrich", "work": "\"Erastus, Quaestor of Corinth,\" New Testament Studies 56", "year": "2010", "view": "Argues that Erastus's civic title in Romans 16:23 corresponds to the quaestorship, a high-ranking municipal office held by the economic elite. Rejects arcarius and aedile as the Latin equivalents." }, { "author": "Alexander Weiss", "work": "\"Keine Quästoren in Korinth: Zu Goodrichs (und Theißens) These über das Amt des Erastos (Röm 16.23),\" New Testament Studies 56", "year": "2010", "view": "Argues that the municipal office of quaestor did not exist at Corinth, against Theissen and Goodrich." }, { "author": "Steven J. Friesen", "work": "\"The Wrong Erastus: Ideology, Archaeology, and Exegesis,\" in Corinth in Context: Comparative Studies on Religion and Society (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 134)", "year": "2010", "view": "As summarised in reviews and responses, argues that the inscription lies in a secondary context and was probably not commissioned before the mid-second century, so it names a non-Christian elite aedile rather than Paul's Erastus. Holds that the Erastus of Romans was a low-status public servant, possibly a slave, and probably not a believer." }, { "author": "John K. Goodrich", "work": "\"Erastus of Corinth (Romans 16.23): Responding to Recent Proposals on his Rank, Status, and Faith,\" New Testament Studies 57", "year": "2011", "view": "Responds to Weiss and Friesen, including Friesen's proposal that Erastus was an unbelieving public slave, and defends the view that Erastus was a Christian who served as a Corinthian municipal quaestor." }, { "author": "Timothy A. Brookins", "work": "\"The (In)frequency of the Name 'Erastus' in Antiquity: A Literary, Papyrological, and Epigraphical Catalog,\" New Testament Studies 59", "year": "2013", "view": "Catalogues ancient occurrences of the name and finds it rare, with very few records from first-century Greece." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177152", "label": "Building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" } ], "title": "哥林多的Erastus铺石铭文", "summary": "哥林多剧场东面一处铺石广场上的拉丁文铭文记载，一位名叫Erastus的人自费铺设了路面，作为对其获任市政官的回报。它表明有一位同名者跻身罗马时期哥林多的官员之列，也就是《罗马书》16:23所描述的那类城市背景。但它不能证明此人就是保罗所提的以拉都：他的全名已经佚失，《罗马书》中的头衔是否对应市政官一职仍有争议，铭文的年代也有争论。", "dating": "目录著录为公元31至70年（EDH、EDCS），与Kent所定的一世纪中叶一致。Friesen（2010）认为它很可能不早于二世纪中叶铺设；此处给出的年代范围止于公元150年，即该主张的最早时间点，而不是其终点。", "currentLocation": "希腊古哥林多考古遗址：剧场东面铺石区中仍在原位的石板；其他残片的位置此处未能确认。", "establishes": [ "一则出自罗马时期哥林多的拉丁文建筑铭文（Kent，Corinth VIII.3 no. 232；EDH HD025815）记载，一位cognomen为Erastus的人自费（sua pecunia）铺设了这片地面，作为对其获任市政官的回报（pro aedilitate）。他的praenomen和nomen已经佚失，而且只有用来镶嵌金属字母的刻槽留存下来。", "它表明，位于亚该亚行省的罗马殖民城哥林多设有市政官，而且任职者可以出资铺设公共路面，来回报自己的当选。", "它把一位名叫Erastus的人放在哥林多的任职阶层中，时间介于一世纪中叶与（按最晚的主张）二世纪中叶或更晚之间。因此，一位身在哥林多、拥有城市头衔的以拉都（《罗马书》16:23），符合这座城市有文献可考的背景。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能证明这位市政官就是《罗马书》16:23、《使徒行传》19:22或《提摩太后书》4:20中的以拉都。他的praenomen和nomen已经佚失，《罗马书》中的城市头衔是否对应市政官一职仍有争议，年代也有争论。", "它不能证明《使徒行传》、《罗马书》和《提摩太后书》提到的以拉都是同一个人；这个问题取决于经文，而不是这块石头。Paley（1790）根据《使徒行传》19:22、《罗马书》16:23和《提摩太后书》4:20论证，哥林多是以拉都的家乡；这一论证早于这块石碑的发现，并且依赖经文。", "它不能证明保罗在哥林多的教会中有富有的官员，也不能证明有基督徒担任过市政官；这两点都取决于有争议的身份认定。保罗说哥林多信徒中有地位的人不多（《哥林多前书》1:26），这句话既不排除、也不证实会众中有精英成员。" ], "debate": "有三个问题仍未解决。年代：Kent把这片铺石定在一世纪中叶前后，EDH和EDCS著录为公元31至70年。Gill报告说，完整的石板于1929年在原位发现；但Friesen认为，铭文处于次生位置，很可能不早于二世纪中叶铺设。职位：有人把《罗马书》16:23中以拉都的城市头衔等同于市政官（Kent、Gill），有人等同于财务官（Theissen、Goodrich），也有人（Cadbury；Friesen）把它理解为地位低下的城市职务，可能由奴隶担任；Weiss则否认哥林多设有市级财务官。身份：Brookins认为这个名字罕见，但哥林多一位很可能属于二世纪的Erastus（Clarke 1991）显示，这个名字在当地并非独一无二；加上praenomen和nomen已经佚失，身份认定仍只是可能，而未得到证明。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "同一人，后来的仕途", "statement": "Kent认为把他认定为《罗马书》中的以拉都是可靠的，Clarke则仍视之为一个重要的可能性。Theissen把《罗马书》中的职位等同于财务官之类的低级职务；Furnish追随他，提出以拉都在写信前后任财务官，后来任市政官。Goodrich也主张那是财务官一职，他认为这是由精英担任的高级职位。" }, { "label": "另一位较晚的市政官", "statement": "Friesen认为，铭文处于次生位置，很可能不早于二世纪中叶铺设。按这种看法，铭文所记的是一位非基督徒的精英，而不是《罗马书》中的以拉都；后者是地位低下的城市职员，可能是奴隶。Friesen还怀疑《罗马书》中的以拉都到底是不是信徒。" }, { "label": "按现有证据无法判定", "statement": "Gill认为，现有证据既不容许有把握地认定，也不容许有把握地否定。这片铺石为记录增添了一位哥林多的Erastus，却不能确定他是否就是保罗提到的那个人。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/erastus-inscription" }, { "id": "gallio-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 51, "dateTo": 52, "corpusReferences": [ "FD III 4, 286", "SIG3 801 D", "AE 2002, 1335", "Oliver, Greek Constitutions 31", "EDH HD043294", "EDCS-66400014", "PHI 240470", "SEG 32, 546 (Deiana's reading of line 17; PHI 240472)", "TM 177226" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 18:1-11", "Acts 18:18", "1 Corinthians 1:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.gallio", "person.claudius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.achaia", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: public legal inscription from Delphi (Achaia)", "locator": "EDH HD043294", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD043294", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (record last updated by Cowey)", "year": "2011" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (references FDelphes 286; AE 2002, 1335; dated 52; Delphoi, Achaia)", "locator": "EDCS-66400014", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/66400014", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos Texts, text-relations service (links EDH HD043294, EDCS 66400014, PHI 240470-240472)", "locator": "TM 177226", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/177226", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Delphi Inscription", "locator": "Q5254406", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q5254406.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "collection of letter fragments written by Claudius", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "seneca-epistles-gummere", "work": "Seneca, Moral Letters to Lucilius (Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales), vol. 3", "locator": "Ep. 104.1", "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Moral_letters_to_Lucilius/Letter_104", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "for I remembered my master Gallio’s words, when he began to develop a fever in Achaia and took ship at once, insisting that the disease was not of the body but of the place.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Seneca", "translator": "Richard Mott Gummere", "year": "1925" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "work": "Tacitus, Annals, Book 15", "locator": "Ann. 15.73", "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Salienus Clemens denounced Junius Gallio, who was terror-stricken at his brother Seneca's death", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (Wikisource text based on their translation)", "year": "1876" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "work": "Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60 (Loeb vol. VII)", "locator": "60.24.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, which ever since the reign of Tiberius had been assigned to governors directly appointed, Claudius now made to depend upon the lot once more.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "work": "Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60 (Loeb vol. VII)", "locator": "60.17.3", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he gave notice to the governors chosen by lot, since they were slow even now about leaving the city, that they must begin their journey before the middle of April.", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL 06, 01256 (p 3129, 3798, 4365) = ILS 218a", "locator": "EDCS-17800159 (CIL 06, 01256 (p 3129, 3798, 4365) = ILS 218a)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/178/17800159.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Émile Bourguet", "work": "De rebus Delphicis imperatoriae aetatis capita duo", "year": "1905", "view": "First published the four fragments together as a letter of Claudius (one had earlier been drawn by Nikitsky). Without discussing Paul, he gave Gallio's year of office as AD 52 on the authority of the Prosopographia (as reported by Deissmann 1912 and SIG3)." }, { "author": "Adolf Deissmann", "work": "St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History, Appendix I (English translation of Paulus, 1911)", "year": "1912", "view": "Dated the letter between the end of 51 or, more probably, the beginning of 52 and 1 August 52, using Dessau's acclamation data and Dessau's date of 1 August 52 for the aqueduct's dedication. Argued that Gallio took office in the summer of 51 and placed Paul in Corinth from early 50 to late summer 51." }, { "author": "André Plassart", "work": "Fouilles de Delphes III.4, no. 286", "year": "1970", "view": "Edited the assembled fragments. Read line 5 as showing that Gallio had reported Delphi's depopulation, and divided line 17 to give a second-person singular pronoun, so that the recipient was an individual, probably Gallio's successor as proconsul (as reported by Oliver 1971)." }, { "author": "James H. Oliver", "work": "The Epistle of Claudius Which Mentions the Proconsul Junius Gallio (Hesperia 40)", "year": "1971", "view": "Accepted most of Plassart's text but doubted the second-person reading of line 17, preferring to take the letters as the end of a verb. Argued that Gallio appears to be proconsul when the emperor writes and that the recipient was a community, either the city of Delphi or the Amphictyonic Council." }, { "author": "Gerd Lüdemann", "work": "Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology (German original 1980)", "year": "1984", "view": "Argues that Acts 18 conflates accounts of two of Paul's visits to Corinth and dates the Gallio incident to the later visit. Reported here via Fellows 2005; not checked in the book itself." }, { "author": "Richard G. Fellows", "work": "Renaming in Paul's Churches: The Case of Crispus-Sosthenes Revisited (Tyndale Bulletin 56.2)", "year": "2005", "view": "Names Donfried, Lüdemann and Hurd as proponents of the view that Acts 18 conflates two visits, and rejects it: since Sosthenes was already a believer who had left Corinth when 1 Corinthians was written, the Gallio incident probably belongs to Paul's first visit." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5254406", "label": "Delphi Inscription" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177226", "label": "Letter of Claudius to Delphi naming Gallio (TM text)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q452194", "label": "Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q75459", "label": "Delphi" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "540726", "label": "Delphi" } ], "title": "德尔斐的迦流铭文", "summary": "刻于德尔斐的革老丢皇帝书信残片，称迦流（复原为[L. Ju]nius Gallio）为他的朋友和省长。根据革老丢的第26次大将军称号，这封信最可能写于公元52年的头七个月，因此迦流约在公元51/52年治理亚该亚，也可能是52/53年。它为《使徒行传》18:12–17的审讯提供了时间锚点，尽管它从未提到保罗或那次审讯。", "dating": "最可能是公元52年的头七个月（8月1日之前）；也不能完全排除公元51年年底的可能。这是革老丢皇帝一封书信的铭刻副本，依据他的第26次大将军称号定年。", "currentLocation": "德尔斐（EDH）。Deissmann（1912）记载，Bourguet整理的四块残片藏于德尔斐博物馆（Inv. 3883、2178、2271、4001）；目前的展出情况未经核实。", "establishes": [ "德尔斐铭刻的一封革老丢皇帝书信，在一段谈及德尔斐缺少公民的文字中，称迦流为他的朋友和省长；这一情况显然是迦流报告的（动词为复原）。名字只存“-nios Gallion”；“Junius”“朋友”和“省长”都是根据残缺的字母复原的，但普遍被接受。德尔斐位于亚该亚，因此这封信独立于《使徒行传》证实了迦流曾治理亚该亚（《使徒行传》18:12）。", "革老丢的头衔中保留了大将军称号的次数26。一则来自Kys的铭文把第26次大将军称号与他的保民官权第12年并列；Porta Maggiore引水道铭文（CIL VI 1256；EDR104278）则把保民官权第12年与第27次大将军称号并列。由于Dessau把这条引水道定于52年8月1日，Deissmann（1912）也随从此说，这封信最可能落在52年的头七个月；51年年底也不能完全排除。", "省长的任期通常为一年左右，因此迦流的任期与52年上半年重叠：最可能是51/52年，也可能是52/53年。如果《使徒行传》18:12–17对审讯的定位正确，审讯应在约51至53年之间。Deissmann（1912）主张51/52年；据Deissmann记载，Ramsay倾向于52/53年。", "塔西佗（《编年史》15.73）称迦流为塞涅卡的兄弟；塞涅卡（《道德书简》104.1）回忆他在开始发烧时乘船离开亚该亚，因此他的任期可能被缩短了（这是推论）。狄奥（60.24.1）说，革老丢在公元44年把亚该亚交还给抽签选出的总督治理，这与《使徒行传》18:12中“省长”的头衔相符。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它没有提到保罗、哥林多的犹太人或任何审讯。它证实的是《使徒行传》18:12提到的这位省长，而不是《使徒行传》18:12–17的场景如所叙述的那样发生过。", "它没有给出迦流任期的起止日期。要在51/52年与52/53年之间作出选择，取决于通常一年的任期、任期从何时开始，以及这封信是否把迦流视为现任省长。", "它无法显示审讯发生在保罗在哥林多的十八个月或更长时间中的哪个阶段（《使徒行传》18:11和《使徒行传》18:18）。因此，保罗抵达哥林多的日期是进一步的推论。", "它不能证明《使徒行传》18:1–18描述的是一次连续的访问。" ], "debate": "公元52年这一日期依据的是石上留存的大将军称号次数；尚待解决的问题都在此之后。只有当Porta Maggiore铭文反映的是引水道的落成日期时，8月1日这一下限才能成立（EDR只把它定为52/53年）；而且Dessau虽然认为不太可能，仍承认第26次大将军称号可能落在51年年底。迦流的任职年度可能是51/52年，也可能是52/53年。狄奥（60.17.3）说，公元43年革老丢下令抽签选出的总督须在4月中旬之前离开罗马，这暗示任期始于春季或初夏（这是推论）；Deissmann随从Mommsen，假定名义上始于7月1日。Plassart把第17行读作第二人称，此处依据的是Oliver（1971）的转述；这种读法使收信人成为迦流的继任者。Oliver倾向于认为收信人是一个群体；另一些人则把第17行切分为动词εἴασε，这样就去掉了代词（Deiana，SEG 32.546；PHI 240472）。像Deissmann那样把审讯放在迦流任期之初，是一种推论；至于那个场景是否发生过，则是另一项历史判断。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "迦流的任职年度是52/53年", "statement": "迦流可能在52年春季或初夏就任，而革老丢在52年8月1日之前写了这封信。这样，审讯就落在52年或53年初，保罗抵达哥林多则约在51年。据Deissmann记载，Ramsay（1909）把这一省长任期定为52年4月至53年4月，把保罗的抵达定在51年10月；Babut（1911）也倾向于相近的范围。" }, { "label": "这封信是在迦流卸任后发出的", "statement": "据Oliver（1971）的转述，Plassart把第17行切分出一个第二人称单数代词，使收信人成为个人，很可能是迦流的继任者，信中告诉他迦流先前所报告的情况。这样，迦流的任职年度就是51/52年，审讯则在51年或52年初。Oliver怀疑这种读法，因为革老丢仍称迦流为省长；而Deiana对这一行的切分则去掉了这个代词。" }, { "label": "《使徒行传》18章合并了两次访问", "statement": "Donfried、Lüdemann和Hurd（据Fellows 2005的转述）认为，《使徒行传》18章合并了两次哥林多之行，并把迦流事件放在后一次；这样，铭文所确定的就是审讯的年代，而不是保罗抵达的年代。Fellows回应说，这一事件很可能属于第一次访问：如果《使徒行传》18:17中的苏提尼是《哥林多前书》的共同发信人（《哥林多前书》1:1），就很难把这一事件定在那封信之后。" }, { "label": "职位得到证实，场景未经证明", "statement": "持怀疑态度的读者可以承认迦流大约在这段时间治理亚该亚，同时仍把《使徒行传》18:12–17视为路加为哥林多故事所作的框架安排。据Deissmann记载，Loisy认为，若审讯确有其事，应在52年或53年初。铭文确定了职位和大致年代；至于事件是否发生，则需要对《使徒行传》另作评估。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/gallio-inscription" }, { "id": "ephesus-artemis-neokoros", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -334, "dateTo": 244, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 2626", "RPC I 2627", "RPC I 2628", "IPriene 231 (= IK Priene 150)", "IEph 27B (= GIBM 481)", "IEph 27E", "IEph 300 (= CIG 2972)", "IEph 1578A (= GIBM 578; SEG 36, 1028)", "IEph 2040", "IEph 2212", "IEph 4336" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:23-41", "Acts 19:24", "Acts 19:27", "Acts 19:35" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "work": "Description of Greece", "author": "Pausanias", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones and H. A. Ormerod", "year": "1918", "locator": "Paus. 4.31.8", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But all cities worship Artemis of Ephesus, and individuals hold her in honor above all the gods.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895 (text read from the 1903 printing)", "locator": "ch. XII §5, 'Demetrius the Silversmith' (p. 278 in the 1903 printing)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/cu31924029332297/cu31924029332297_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The richer tradesmen made shrines in the more expensive material, and silver was evidently a favourite material among the wealthy.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "Demetrius the Silversmith (The Expositor, 4th series, vol. 1); Ephesus: A Postscript (The Expositor, 4th series, vol. 2)", "year": "1890", "view": "Combined fragments of an honorary list of neopoioi (GIBM 578 = IEph 1578A) and identified the Demetrios of its dating formula, whom he took as foreman of the neopoioi, with the silversmith of Acts 19. He dated the list before Vespasian, possibly to Paul's time, and preferred metal statuettes like the Salutaris images to shrines. The first article is known here through Rogers 1986; the postscript was read." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "view": "The shrines were small shrines of the goddess sold for dedication: cheap ones in terracotta, costlier ones in marble or silver. Demetrius was a leading figure in these trades, and the riot reflects threatened commercial and temple interests." }, { "author": "G. M. Rogers", "work": "Demetrios of Ephesos: Silversmith and Neopoios? (Belleten 50)", "year": "1986", "view": "Doubts Hicks's dating and identification: the Demetrios of the dating formula appears to be a city official and is not definitely a neopoios, while the Demetrios of lines 6-7 certainly is, and identifying him with the silversmith is speculation. Neopoioi conferred citizenship and guarded the Artemision's dedications, including the Salutaris images; if Demetrius was one, Luke's silence about the office would reveal his narrative purpose." }, { "author": "S. J. Friesen", "work": "Twice Neokoros: Ephesus, Asia and the Cult of the Flavian Imperial Family", "year": "1993", "view": "Dates the provincial temple of the Sebastoi at Ephesus, the city's first securely attested imperial neokorate, to AD 89/90, and approves Keil's reading of the Neronian neokoroi coins as referring to Artemis. Both points are reported via Witetschek 2009 and secondary summaries, not checked in the book." }, { "author": "B. Burrell", "work": "Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors", "year": "2004", "view": "A comprehensive study of neokoros cities. Connects the Neronian coins with an imperial temple granted under Nero, and treats Acts 19:35 as reflecting the 50s, arguing that 'neokoros of Artemis' would not have suited Ephesus between its imperial neokorate and the early third century. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "S. Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "Acts 19:35 is the earliest clear attestation of Ephesus as neokoros of Artemis; the official title dates from Caracalla's reign. The coins alone are inconclusive, but read alongside Acts as evidence for the late first century they more plausibly show that Ephesians could already call their city neokoros of Artemis. Acts 19 is evidence mainly for Luke's own time." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Counts the neokoros title in Acts 19:35 among Luke's specific local knowledge. Reported via Witetschek 2009, not checked in Hemer directly." }, { "author": "J. Keil", "work": "Die erste Kaiserneokorie von Ephesos (Numismatische Zeitschrift 12)", "year": "1919", "view": "Rejected the idea of a Neronian imperial neokorate and took the neokoros title on the coins of AD 65/6 to refer to Artemis. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "F. Kirbihler", "work": "Les grands-prêtres d'Éphèse: aspects institutionnels et sociaux de l'asiarchie (in Pathways to Power, ed. A. D. Rizakis and F. Camia)", "year": "2008", "view": "Supports a provincial neokorate granted to Ephesus under Nero, arguing that Tacitus could have passed over it. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "R. I. Pervo", "work": "Acts (Hermeneia)", "year": "2009", "view": "Suspects that the neokoros title in Acts 19:35 may be a slight anachronism. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "A. Burnett, M. Amandry and P. P. Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage I: From the Death of Caesar to the Death of Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992", "view": "Catalogues the Neronian neokoroi coins of Ephesus as RPC I 2626-2628. The online note on 2628 says its legend is mostly illegible, assigns it to the group by type and style, and allows that the bees may symbolize the Artemis temple." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q43018", "label": "Temple of Ephesian Artemis" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1553679", "label": "neocorus (temple-warden office and title)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "873985034", "label": "Temple of Artemis, Ephesus" } ], "title": "以弗所作为亚底米的神庙守护者：钱币、铭文与小神龛问题", "summary": "《使徒行传》19:35是最早明确把亚底米神庙守护者头衔归于以弗所的文本。公元65/6年的钱币称以弗所居民为neokoroi，却没有指明是哪座神庙；铭文要到约公元200年起才加上“亚底米的”字样。公元104年及罗马时期的铭文证实了神庙官员、银匠和亚底米的银像。这里查考的资料中，没有发现有别于小雕像的亚底米银制小神龛。", "dating": "约公元前334年至公元244年（一组资料）：作为个人职务的亚底米neokoros，约公元前334年（IPriene 231）；尼禄时期的钱币，公元65/6年；Salutaris基金，公元104年；作为城市头衔的“亚底米的neokoros”，见于公元200/210年至244年的铭文", "currentLocation": "以弗所遗址及亚底米神庙遗址（土耳其塞尔丘克）；IPriene 231发现于普里恩。Salutaris铭文和neopoioi铭文依据大英博物馆所藏石块发表，编号为GIBM 481和578；其目前位置未与大英博物馆的记录核对。RPC记载，RPC I 2628唯一已知的标本藏于大英博物馆；2626-2627的标本分藏于多处收藏机构。", "establishes": [ "公元65/6年在以弗所铸造的青铜币称以弗所居民为neokoroi：RPC I 2626-2627上有省长Aviola和官员Aichmokles的名字，2628则根据币型和风格被归入同一批次。这座城市在保罗居留约十年后就使用这个头衔，早于它首个确证的帝国崇拜neokoros称号（弗拉维王朝神庙，Friesen定于公元89/90年）。币文没有指明是哪座神庙。", "早在保罗之前很久，neokoros就是亚底米神庙中一个公认的职位。在普里恩发现的一则约公元前334年的铭文，尊崇Megabyxos之子Megabyxos（第一个名字为复原）为以弗所的亚底米neokoros（IPriene 231）。", "约从公元200年起，以弗所的铭文在列出该城帝国崇拜neokoros称号的同时，也称它为亚底米的neokoros：IEph 2040（修缮剧场，公元200/210年）、IEph 300（公元214/217年；三度neokoros，两次属诸帝，一次属亚底米）和IEph 4336（公元244年），后者还提到民众书记和两名neopoioi。IEph 2040可能略早于卡拉卡拉在位时的那次授予，Witetschek把那次授予视为正式授予。", "公元104年，Salutaris基金（IEph 27）献上一尊亚底米金像和若干银像（总数为复原）。议事会的一项决议规定，由neopoioi（神庙官员）陪同，把这些像从亚底米神庙的门廊抬到大会和赛会上。一座年代不明的罗马时期坟墓（IEph 2212）属于一位兼任neopoios的银匠，由银匠的synedrion负责照管。", "公元二世纪写作的保萨尼亚斯说，所有城市都敬拜以弗所的亚底米，个人也尊她在众神之上（4.31.8）。这是《使徒行传》19:27关于她受普世敬拜之说的较晚平行记载，证明的是她在保萨尼亚斯时代的声望，而不是五十年代的声望。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能证明低米丢其人其事、剧场里的骚乱或城里书记的讲话，都如《使徒行传》19:23–41所叙述的那样发生过。它表明的是，这一城市与宗教背景合理可信。", "它不能证实存在亚底米的银制小神龛。Salutaris的银器是小雕像。1890年时，Hicks不知道有任何出自以弗所的亚底米金属神龛，这里查考的资料也没有新增任何例子。贵金属器物很少能保存下来，因此这种沉默只是薄弱的证据。", "它不能证明“亚底米的neokoros”在五十年代已是正式的城市头衔。尼禄时期的钱币没有指明神庙，点出亚底米之名的措辞要到约公元200年起才见于铭文。", "IEph 1578A在残缺的纪年格式中提到一位Demetrios，其职位已佚；又列出Menophilos之子Demetrios为第一位neopoios；两者可能是同一人，也可能不是。两人都不能被认定为《使徒行传》19:24中的那位银匠。" ], "debate": "“亚底米的neokoros”在保罗的时代是否已经通行？Keil（1919）把尼禄时期的钱币理解为指亚底米，Friesen赞同此说。Burrell和Kirbihler则把这些钱币与尼禄在位时获准建立的一座帝国崇拜神庙联系起来；不过Burrell仍认为《使徒行传》19:35反映的是五十年代，因为他认为从以弗所获得帝国崇拜neokoros称号到三世纪初这段时间，这个头衔不会适合该城。Witetschek认为单凭钱币无法定论，但他把《使徒行传》19:35读作证据，说明在路加所处的一世纪末，以弗所居民可以使用这个头衔，而这又使Keil对钱币的解读更为可信。Pervo怀疑这里有轻微的时代错置。关于低米丢的神龛，Ramsay提出那是用陶土、大理石和银制成的女神小神龛；Hicks则倾向于认为是小雕像，并把低米丢认定为neopoioi中的一位官员；Rogers认为这一认定属于推测。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "非正式头衔已在使用（《使徒行传》符合五十年代）", "statement": "在有任何帝国崇拜神庙之前，以弗所就已非正式地自称为亚底米的neokoros，而公元65/6年尼禄时期的币文指的就是亚底米（Keil，Friesen赞同；RPC对2628的注释也考虑过亚底米神庙的可能）。按这种看法，《使徒行传》19:35中城里书记的话符合保罗的时代，尽管《使徒行传》是最早明确赋予该城这一亚底米头衔的文本。" }, { "label": "尼禄时期的钱币指的是帝国崇拜神庙", "statement": "公元65/6年的钱币反映的是尼禄在位时获准建立、在他死后中断的一座行省帝国崇拜神庙（Burrell、Kirbihler）。这样，这些钱币就完全没有涉及亚底米头衔，而《使徒行传》19:35将是这一头衔仅有的一世纪证据。Witetschek认为，这一理论更多依赖推测和资料的空白，而不是明确的证据。" }, { "label": "路加自己的时代，或时代错置", "statement": "这个说法反映的是《使徒行传》成书时，即一世纪末，以弗所居民如何理解自己的城市（Witetschek）；也可能是一种轻微的时代错置（Pervo）。无论哪种情况，它都是路加所处背景的证据，而不是五十年代所说之话的记录。" }, { "label": "低米丢的神龛是什么？", "statement": "它们可能是出售供人奉献用的女神小神龛：便宜的用陶土制成，较贵的用大理石或银制成（Ramsay）。Hicks认为更可能是像Salutaris像那样的金属小雕像，并把低米丢认定为IEph 1578A纪年格式中的那位Demetrios，认为他是neopoioi的领班。Rogers视这一认定为推测。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/ephesus-artemis-neokoros" }, { "id": "ephesus-officials", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 114, "corpusReferences": [ "I.Ephesos 508 (PHI PH248466; McCabe, Ephesos 753)", "I.Ephesos 234 (PHI PH248454; McCabe, Ephesos 741)", "I.Ephesos 424 (PHI PH247993; McCabe, Ephesos 285)", "I.Ephesos 858 (PHI PH248477; McCabe, Ephesos 763)", "Suppl. Ephes. 241 (PHI PH255995; new fragments of the donor list I.Ephesos 1687)", "Suppl. Ephes. 142+0144 (PHI PH255972)", "SEG 57.1220 (PHI PH348884)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 19:31", "Acts 19:35-41", "Acts 19:23-41" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.demetrius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History, Book 4 (quoting the Martyrdom of Polycarp), Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1", "locator": "Hist. eccl. 4.15.27", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "year": "1890", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "they cried out and asked the Asiarch Philip to let a lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said that it was not lawful for him, since he had closed the games.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (10th ed., CCEL text)", "locator": "ch. XII §5, 'Demetrius the Silversmith'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "year": "1907 (10th ed.; first published 1895)", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Asiarchs, or High Priests of Asia, were the heads of the imperial, political-religious organisation of the province in the worship of \"Rome and the Emperors\"", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Steven J. Friesen", "work": "Asiarchs (Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 126)", "year": "1999", "view": "Uses a systematic count of attestations to argue that identifying Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia is wrong, and that Magie's conclusion that Asiarchs were a special category of agonothete is more likely. Notes that Asiarch titles begin to appear in the public record only in the late first century AD." }, { "author": "R. A. Kearsley", "work": "Asiarchs, Archiereis, and the Archiereiai of Asia (Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 27)", "year": "1986", "view": "Argues that high priestesses of Asia held a real office, not an honorary one. In at least two cases (AD 130/1 and 217/8) a husband was Asiarch while his wife was high priestess of Asia in the same year, which she argues shows that the Asiarch's office was not the provincial high priesthood." }, { "author": "Stephan Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "His abstract states that the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 call into question their identification with the provincial high priests. He grants that the office existed before AD 89/90, citing Strabo's Asiarchs at Tralles, but reads Acts 19:31 as an updating from Luke's own time, when the office had gained new prominence." }, { "author": "Jürgen Deininger", "work": "Die Provinziallandtage der römischen Kaiserzeit von Augustus bis zum Ende des dritten Jahrhunderts n. Chr.", "year": "1965", "view": "Defended the identification of Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia. Friesen (1999) calls it the last significant exposition of that view, and Witetschek (2009) cites it for the majority position." }, { "author": "M. Rossner", "work": "Asiarchen und Archiereis Asias (Studii Clasice 16)", "year": "1974", "view": "Supported the identification of Asiarchs with the high priests of Asia. Reported via Friesen 1999 and Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "D. Magie", "work": "Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century After Christ", "year": "1950", "view": "Concluded that Asiarchs were a special category of agonothete (games-president), the view Friesen 1999 develops. Reported via Friesen 1999." }, { "author": "F. Kirbihler", "work": "Les grands-prêtres d'Éphèse: aspects institutionnels et sociaux de l'asiarchie (in Pathways to Power, ed. A. D. Rizakis and F. Camia)", "year": "2008", "view": "Suggests that Acts 19:31 results from a Flavian rewriting in which Luke used a term of his own time, incorrectly, for an office of Paul's time. Reported via Witetschek 2009." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Counted the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 among Luke's specific local knowledge and held that their friendship with Paul should not be dismissed as highly unlikely. Reported via Witetschek 2009." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q727844", "label": "Asiarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q47611", "label": "Ephesus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" } ], "title": "以弗所的书记与亚西亚首领", "summary": "铭文显示，《使徒行传》在以弗所骚乱中使用的两个头衔都真实存在。一份提比略在位时的决议残片，是在一位民众grammateus（书记）任内的那一年批准的，此人名字已佚；一份公元92/93年的献词，则以担任grammateus兼“亚西亚首领”的Tiberius Claudius Aristion来纪年。这些文本都没有提到保罗或那场骚乱。以弗所的亚西亚首领铭文要到一世纪末才出现，而亚西亚首领究竟是什么，至今仍有争议。", "dating": "这一年代范围只涵盖以弗所的铭文，从提比略在位时（公元14至37年）到公元102/114年。出自利底亚Silandos的SEG 57.1220，其编者定为公元前一世纪，但必定晚于公元前29/27年；另一些人倾向于公元一世纪。经优西比乌引用的《坡旅甲殉道记》属于公元二世纪中叶。", "currentLocation": "以弗所的文本都在以弗所（土耳其塞尔丘克）发现，只有Suppl. Ephes. 241的残片c发现于Pamucak。SEG 57.1220出自利底亚的Silandos（发现地点为Tamasis/Selmanhacılar）。这些石刻目前的位置未经核查。《坡旅甲殉道记》以文本形式留存，此处经由优西比乌的引用而引述。", "establishes": [ "在保罗居留之前，以弗所就有一位称为民众grammateus（书记）的城市官员。一份决议残片根据其格式定于提比略在位时（公元14至37年），它在提比略崇拜的大祭司和一位民众grammateus（名字已佚）任内的那一年获得批准，并得到“strategoi和民众grammateus”的同意。后来图密善和图拉真在位时的献词，都以grammateus来纪年。", "在以弗所以外，亚西亚首领可能在保罗之前已有记录。一份出自利底亚Silandos的文本（SEG 57.1220）尊崇Tiberius [Iulius?] Damas为亚西亚首领和sebastophant。其编者把它定于公元前一世纪，但奥古斯都崇拜的头衔要求年代晚于公元前29/27年，而Campanile倾向于公元一世纪（据Witetschek 2009的转述）。", "同一批显要人物可以兼任这两种职位。Ti. Claudius Aristion在公元88/89年是“亚西亚的大祭司”（I.Ephesos 234），在公元92/93年是grammateus和“亚西亚首领”（I.Ephesos 508）；一般认为与他是同一人的Claudius Aristion，在公元102/114年是“三度任亚西亚首领”（I.Ephesos 424）。T. Flavius Pythion在公元104/105年第二次任grammateus，并任亚西亚首领（I.Ephesos 858）。", "骚乱叙事中的头衔（《使徒行传》19:31和《使徒行传》19:35）真实存在：grammateus在保罗之前已见于以弗所；亚西亚首领从一世纪末起见于以弗所，在亚西亚的其他地方可能更早。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些文本都没有提到保罗、低米丢、那场骚乱或《使徒行传》19:35中那位未具名的城里书记。它们证实的是头衔和背景，而不是《使徒行传》所叙述的事件。", "它们不能确定亚西亚首领是什么、做什么。这个头衔可能是行省帝国崇拜大祭司的别称，也可能是与资助赛会相关的另一种荣衔，或是一种城市职位。", "以弗所的亚西亚首领铭文始于弗拉维王朝晚期（约公元89/90年）。单凭这些铭文，无法显示《使徒行传》19:31反映的是五十年代还是路加自己的时代；这里引用的文本中，只有SEG 57.1220可能更早，而它的年代并不确定。", "优西比乌所引的《坡旅甲殉道记》出自士每拿，约在保罗之后一个世纪。它显示的是一位亚西亚首领在那里主持赛会，而不是五十年代以弗所的做法。" ], "debate": "从Ramsay到Deininger和Rossner，许多学者都把“亚西亚首领”理解为亚西亚行省帝国崇拜大祭司的别称。Kearsley（1986）和Friesen（1999）则主张这两个头衔是分开的，Friesen还重新提出Magie的看法，认为亚西亚首领是一类特殊的赛会主持人。按优西比乌所引的《坡旅甲殉道记》，亚西亚首领菲利普拒绝放出狮子，因为他已经结束了赛会。第二个问题是年代。Witetschek承认这一职位在公元89/90年之前已经存在，并引斯特拉波所记奥古斯都时代特拉勒斯的亚西亚首领为证；但他认为，此后这一职位新获得的显赫地位，使《使徒行传》19:31成为路加按自己时代所作的更新。Kirbihler称之为弗拉维王朝时期的改写；Hemer则把亚西亚首领列为路加的地方知识之一。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "亚西亚首领即行省大祭司", "statement": "按这种看法，“亚西亚首领”是亚西亚帝国崇拜大祭司的另一个头衔。这样，《使徒行传》19:31中的几位亚西亚首领，就是保留这一头衔的卸任者（Deininger），或该行省各神庙的大祭司。Witetschek反驳说，这类神庙只有两三座，任期只有一年，而且卸任的亚西亚首领在以弗所铭文中的称呼方式不同。" }, { "label": "亚西亚首领是另一种荣衔", "statement": "按这种看法，亚西亚首领是一种独立且人数较多的荣衔。在追随Magie的Friesen看来，他们是一类特殊的赛会主持人（agonothetes）；Kearsley后来则提出他们是城市官员（据Friesen 1999的转述）。无论哪种情况，都可能同时有几位亚西亚首领在以弗所，而与帝国崇拜的大祭司职位没有关系。" }, { "label": "来自路加自己时代的地方色彩", "statement": "《使徒行传》19:31中的亚西亚首领反映的是该书成书时的情况，即这一职位新获得显赫地位之后：这是一种更新，而不是时代错置（Witetschek 2009）；或是弗拉维王朝时期的改写，把较晚的称呼套用在保罗时代的一种职位上（Kirbihler，据Witetschek的转述）。无论哪种情况，这节经文都更多是路加世界的证据，而不是保罗世界的证据。" }, { "label": "对保罗时代的追忆", "statement": "在弗拉维王朝神庙出现之前，已有较早形式的亚西亚首领存在，所以路加可能指的是他们，而他们与保罗的友谊也不必被视为不太可能而遭否定（Hemer，据Witetschek的转述）。Witetschek承认这是可能的，但更倾向于把这节经文读作一种更新。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-ephesus-officials" }, { "id": "thessalonica-politarchs", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -27, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [ "CIG 1967", "GIBM II 171" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:1-9", "Acts 17:5-9", "Acts 17:6", "Acts 17:8", "Acts 19:29", "Acts 20:4", "Romans 16:21" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.jason" ], "placeIds": [ "place.thessalonica", "place.macedonia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "C. T. Newton (ed.)", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part II", "year": "1883", "locator": "GIBM II no. CLXXI (171), Macedonia section", "url": "https://archive.org/download/collectionofanci00brit/collectionofanci00brit_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. X, sec. 6, p. 227", "url": "https://archive.org/download/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The curious and rare title \"politarchs\" was given to the supreme board of magistrates at Thessalonica, as is proved by an inscription.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Golden Gate (Thessaloniki), alias Vardar Gate", "locator": "Q96631855", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/w/api.php?action=wbgetentities&ids=Q96631855&props=labels%7Cdescriptions%7Caliases%7Cclaims%7Csitelinks&languages=en%7Cel%7Cde%7Cfr&format=json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades: Thessalonica", "locator": "491741", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/491741/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Ernest DeWitt Burton", "work": "The Politarchs, American Journal of Theology 2", "year": "1898", "view": "Collects 17 inscriptions attesting politarchs (19 with probable restorations). Shows that Thessalonica had politarchs from Augustus to Antoninus Pius, dates the Vardar Gate block after 30 BC and possibly as late as AD 143 or later, and records the office also in Thrace, Bithynia, the Bosporus and Egypt." }, { "author": "Illinois Greek Club (trans.)", "work": "Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodotus, Onasander (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1923", "view": "In a note on Aeneas Tacticus 26.12, observes that this rare title occurs elsewhere almost exclusively at Thessalonica and its vicinity, and suggests Aeneas met it during military service in the north Aegean." }, { "author": "Charles Edson", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae X 2,1: Inscriptiones Thessalonicae et viciniae", "year": "1972", "view": "The standard corpus of Thessalonian inscriptions. Athanasiadis (2026) reports that Edson dated the politarch list IG X 2,1 126 to the 2nd century AD." }, { "author": "G. H. R. Horsley", "work": "The Politarchs, in D. W. J. Gill and C. Gempf (eds.), The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting", "year": "1994", "view": "Collects and analyses the non-literary evidence for politarchs; later epigraphers and New Testament scholars cite it as a standard reference on the office." }, { "author": "G. H. R. Horsley", "work": "Politarchs in Macedonia and Beyond, Mediterranean Archaeology 7", "year": "1994", "view": "Collects and analyses the non-literary evidence for politarchs in Macedonia and elsewhere; later epigraphers cite it as a standard reference on the office." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Applies epigraphic and archaeological evidence about local titles and institutions to the historicity of Acts, arguing that the author was well informed about the places he describes." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Argues that Acts was written in the early 2nd century (about AD 115). On this view, accurate local titles cannot by themselves secure an early date." }, { "author": "Manuela Mari", "work": "Istituzioni cittadine della Macedonia preromana: alcune novità epigrafiche, Historika 7", "year": "2017", "view": "Argues that the ephebarchic law from Amphipolis, a royal-period text recopied in 24/3 BC, settles that politarchs existed before the Roman settlement of 167 BC, while their spread to all Macedonian cities, and probably the growth in their numbers, belongs to the Roman period." }, { "author": "Bradley Ritter", "work": "On the 'politeuma in Heracleopolis', Scripta Classica Israelica 30", "year": "2011", "view": "Reads the petitions to the politarches in the Ptolemaic Heracleopolis papyri as addressed to that city's civic politeuma, not to the head of a Jewish association as their editors proposed. Either way, the title also occurs in Ptolemaic Egypt." }, { "author": "Giorgos Athanasiadis", "work": "Roman Rule and Local Society in the Province of Macedonia: The Case of Thessaloniki, CHS Research Bulletin 14", "year": "2026", "view": "Dates a politarch list he cites as IG X 2,1 126, described in terms that fit the Vardar Gate text (a first politarch named with his mother and his father's full Roman name, two officials surnamed Rheglos), to the early 1st century AD, saying it was rightly redated from Edson's 2nd-century date on prosopographical grounds." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q96631855", "label": "Golden Gate (Vardar Gate), Thessaloniki" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7210123", "label": "Politarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q17151", "label": "Thessaloniki" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "491741", "label": "Thessalonica" } ], "title": "帖撒罗尼迦的城邦长官（politarch）铭文与瓦尔达尔门石刻", "summary": "帖撒罗尼迦出土的铭文显示，《使徒行传》17:6和17:8用来称呼该城最高长官的politarch（城邦长官）是正确的称号：从奥古斯都时代到公元143年的铭文，列出的都是由五人或六人组成的长官团。现藏大英博物馆的一块瓦尔达尔门石块，按通常的读法列出六人，但其年代仍有争议。这个称号在文献中罕见，在马其顿的铭文中却很常见。这些石刻并没有证实《使徒行传》17:1–9中的任何事件、担保或人物。", "dating": "瓦尔达尔门石块上没有纪年格式。Burton把它定在公元前30年以后，并认为可能晚至公元143年或更晚；Athanasiadis引作IG X 2,1 126的一份名单（他对该名单的描述与这件铭文相符），被他定在公元一世纪早期，而不是Edson所定的二世纪。帖撒罗尼迦其他的politarch铭文，年代从奥古斯都在位时期延续到公元143年。", "currentLocation": "伦敦大英博物馆（瓦尔达尔门石块；据GIBM，由J. E. Blunt于1877年捐赠）。出自卡拉马里亚门的奥古斯都时代politarch铭文已经佚失（据Burton）。", "establishes": [ "帖撒罗尼迦的最高市政长官组成一个称为politarch（城邦长官）的长官团，也就是《使徒行传》17:6和17:8的英文译本称为该城官长的那些官员。一件出自卡拉马里亚门、现已佚失的奥古斯都时代铭文列出五人，一件公元143年的铭文列出六人，瓦尔达尔门石块按通常的读法也列出六人。这与耶孙和其他信徒被带到其面前的那个复数长官团相符。", "在存世的希腊文献中，这个称号只见于《使徒行传》；战术家埃涅阿斯26.12（公元前四世纪中叶）有一个相关的形式politarchos。铭文则经常证实这一官职，而且绝大多数在马其顿。可见《使徒行传》用的是一个精确的地区性用语，而不是泛指统治者的一般词语。", "公元143年的铭文还提到该城的议事会（boule）和民众（demos）；《使徒行传》17:5–9记述群众想把宣教者带到民众那里时，所预设的正是这样的城市建制。不过，希腊城市普遍设有公民大会和议事会，所以这个细节并不特殊；真正独特的吻合在于politarch这个称号。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它没有证实《使徒行传》17:1–9中的任何事件：会堂里的讲道、暴动、耶孙的接待，以及从耶孙和其他人那里取得的担保，都没有得到证实。", "这一官职的证据，从公元前167年罗马的善后安排之前（依Mari对暗非波里青年训练官法的读法）一直延续到公元三世纪，遍及马其顿的许多城镇，也见于其他地区。因此，单凭正确使用这个称号，既不能为《使徒行传》定年，也不能证明其作者是目击者。", "石块上的Sosipatros、Secundus和Gaius都是常见的名字。Secundus是第一位politarch的父亲，Gaius则是另一位politarch Gaius Agilleius Poteitus的首名；因此，这些名字不能用来认定《使徒行传》19:29和20:4中的西公都（Secundus）或该犹（Gaius），也不能认定《罗马书》16:21中的所西巴德（Sosipater）。" ], "debate": "悬而未决的问题之一是瓦尔达尔门石块的年代。Boeckh把它定在弗拉维王朝或更晚（不早于公元69年），但依据的是一个误读的人名；Burton把它定在公元前30年以后，并认为可能晚至公元143年或更晚；Athanasiadis报告说，他引作IG X 2,1 126的一份名单（看来就是这件铭文）被重新定在公元一世纪早期，而不是Edson所定的二世纪。按通常的读法，石块列出六位politarch，但Mordtmann认为也可能是五位。更大的问题是，一个正确的称号能为《使徒行传》的可靠性增添多少分量：Hemer把这类细节算作作者消息灵通的证据，Pervo则把《使徒行传》定在约公元115年。至于有人声称学者们在这块石头出现以前一直怀疑这个称号，这种说法并没有根据：它早在1740年就已发表，十九世纪的新约词典也已经引用它（据Burton）。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "消息灵通但年代较晚的作者", "statement": "Burton的证据显示，politarch一直延续到公元三世纪，所以一位在二世纪初写作、消息灵通的作者（正如Pervo对《使徒行传》的主张）仍然可以正确使用这个称号。按这种看法，这些铭文证实的是背景描写的准确性，而不是较早的成书年代或目击者的叙述。" }, { "label": "累积论证中的一项准确细节", "statement": "Hemer等人把这个正确的称号视为《使徒行传》中众多精确的地方细节之一；这些细节合在一起，指向一位熟悉所述地点的作者。即使按这种看法，铭文证实的也只是称号，而不是这段情节。" }, { "label": "马其顿通行的称号，而非帖撒罗尼迦独有", "statement": "称为politarch的官员也见于马其顿的其他城镇，以及色雷斯、庇推尼和博斯普鲁斯；在埃及赫拉克利奥波利斯出土的托勒密时期纸草中，也出现了一位politarches。因此，这个用语适用于一般的马其顿城市，而不是帖撒罗尼迦独有的内部细节，尽管帖撒罗尼迦提供的证据所占比例特别大。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/thessalonica-politarchs" }, { "id": "sergius-paulus-inscriptions", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 96, "corpusReferences": [ "CIL VI 31545", "ILS 5926", "EDR127293", "TM 281782", "EDH HD046352", "AE 2002, 1457", "TM 176947", "EDH HD046353", "AE 2002, 1458", "TM 176948", "IGR III 300", "Sterrett, EJ 134,108", "JRS 3 (1913) 262,5", "IGR III 930", "ABSA 42 (1947) 201,1", "IGR III 935", "SEG 20:302", "SEG 55:1526", "Myres 1914, no. 1903" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:6-12", "Acts 13:7" ], "personIds": [ "person.sergius-paulus", "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.elymas", "person.claudius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.cyprus", "place.paphos", "place.pisidian-antioch" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL 06, 31545 (p 3796, 4362) = ILS 5926; TM 281782", "locator": "EDCS-19500065 (CIL 06, 31545 (p 3796, 4362) = ILS 5926; TM 281782)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/195/19500065.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: honorific base of L. Sergius Paullus filius, Antiochia Pisidiae", "locator": "EDH HD046352 (AE 2002, 1457; TM 176947)", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/data/api/inschrift/suche?hd_nr=HD046352", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: fragment naming Paullus Ser[gius] and L. Serg[ius], Antiochia Pisidiae", "locator": "EDH HD046353 (AE 2002, 1458; TM 176948)", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/data/api/inschrift/suche?hd_nr=HD046353", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "John L. Myres", "work": "Handbook of the Cesnola Collection of Antiquities from Cyprus (Metropolitan Museum of Art)", "year": "1914", "locator": "no. 1903, p. 319 (appendix text p. 548)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/handbookofcesnol00metruoft/handbookofcesnol00metruoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. IV, p. 74", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "dated \"in the proconsulship of Paulus,\" who probably is the same governor that played a part in the strange and interesting scene now to be described.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "work": "Roman History (Loeb Classical Library, vol. VI)", "year": "1917", "locator": "54.4.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It was at this time that he restored to the people both Cyprus and Gallia Narbonensis as districts no longer needing the presence of his armies; and thus proconsuls began to be sent to those provinces also.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament", "year": "1915", "view": "Proposed, as a hypothesis, that the Antioch L. Sergius Paullus was the proconsul's son, whom he inferred governed Galatia about AD 72-74, and that Sergia Paulla was the proconsul's daughter. Held that Christianity passed into this female line, while the son's branch stayed pagan." }, { "author": "R. Cagnat (ed.)", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes III", "year": "1906", "view": "Suggests that the Quintus Ser[gius] of no. 935 was perhaps proconsul of Cyprus, and doubts that the Paulus of no. 930 is L. Sergius Paullus." }, { "author": "T. B. Mitford", "work": "Notes on Some Published Inscriptions of Roman Cyprus (Annual of the British School at Athens 42)", "year": "1947", "view": "Re-edited the Soli epitaph. As reported by van Elderen, he read the Paulus year as 10, computed AD 50 at the earliest if it is a Claudian regnal year, judged the inscription probably considerably later, and thought Myres's restoration at Kythrea at least plausible." }, { "author": "Bastiaan Van Elderen", "work": "Some Archaeological Observations on Paul's First Missionary Journey, in Apostolic History and the Gospel (ed. W. W. Gasque and R. P. Martin)", "year": "1970", "view": "Held that the Soli text cannot be tied to the Acts proconsul and that the Tiber-curator identification is unproven, since nothing links L. Sergius Paullus to Cyprus. Rejected Ramsay's family theory, and thought the Kythrea fragment the most attractive candidate, with reservation." }, { "author": "Douglas A. Campbell", "work": "Possible Inscriptional Attestation to Sergius Paul[l]us (Acts 13:6-12), and the Implications for Pauline Chronology (Journal of Theological Studies n.s. 56)", "year": "2005", "view": "Restores Tiberius and Quintus Sergius Paul[l]us, probably the governor, in the Kythrea text. On that cautious restoration, Paul's first journey took place during or before AD 37, about ten years earlier than usually thought." }, { "author": "Jonathan Bernier", "work": "When Paul Met Sergius: An Assessment of Douglas Campbell's Pauline Chronology for the Years 36 to 37 (Journal of Biblical Literature 138)", "year": "2019", "view": "Judges Campbell's reconstruction not impossible on the present data, but improbable enough that it should be rejected." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2566388", "label": "Sergius Paulus, proconsul of Cyprus" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "281782", "label": "CIL VI 31545, Tiber cippus naming L. Sergius Paullus" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "176947", "label": "Base of L. Sergius Paullus filius, Pisidian Antioch (EDH HD046352)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "609307", "label": "Antiochia/Col. Caesarea (Pisidian Antioch)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "707624", "label": "Soloi/Aipeia? (Cyprus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "707496", "label": "Chyt(h)roi (Kythrea, Cyprus)" } ], "title": "可能提及省长士求．保罗的铭文", "summary": "没有任何存世铭文能确切地提及《使徒行传》13:7中的省长士求．保罗。罗马一块革老丢时期的界石提到一位元老L. Sergius Paullus；彼西底的安提阿在该世纪稍后有Sergii Paulli家族的人；索利的一篇墓志铭提到某人在一位名叫Paulus的省长任内担任的职务；Kythrea的一块残片被读作提到一位Quintus Serg-。这些铭文表明，这个名字符合当时一位元老的身份，但每一项与塞浦路斯总督的关联，都建立在复原、推论或未注年代的文本之上。", "dating": "罗马界石：公元41至54年（革老丢时期；EDR认为是41至47年）。Kythrea残片：大都会艺术博物馆的记录定为一世纪上半叶，van Elderen根据字体定为一世纪，其中的皇帝被复原为提比略或革老丢。索利墓志铭：革老丢以后（PHI）；它提到的Paulus之年更早，且没有注明纪元。彼西底的安提阿：Sergia Paulla铭文为公元81至96年；L. Sergius Paullus filius的基座未注年代（Ramsay把内容相同的Salir铭文的字体定在公元60至100年）。", "currentLocation": "罗马，罗马国家博物馆米开朗基罗回廊，藏品号242（台伯河界石，据EDR）。纽约，大都会艺术博物馆，切斯诺拉收藏，登录号74.51.2425（Kythrea残片，据大都会艺术博物馆的记录）。索利和彼西底的安提阿石刻的现藏地点尚未核实。", "establishes": [ "约公元前22年，奥古斯都把塞浦路斯交还人民管辖（狄奥，54.4.1），此后该岛由省长治理；因此，正如Ramsay所强调的，《使徒行传》对这位岛上总督的称号符合当时的情况。", "出自罗马台伯河的一块界石（CIL VI 31545 = ILS 5926）经革老丢皇帝授权设立（公元41至54年），列出L. Sergius Paullus为河岸与河道的五位管理官之一。可见，一位兼有《使徒行传》所记两个名字的元老，曾在革老丢治下于罗马担任公职。", "在彼西底的安提阿，一座未注年代的荣誉基座（EDH HD046352）提到Lucius之子L. Sergius Paullus，称为filius（小），当时他处于元老仕途的早期：曾任道路管理官（IIIIvir viarum curandarum）、第六军团（legio VI Ferrata）的军事保民官，以及财务官（quaestor）。Ramsay发表了一篇内容相同的铭文，依据的是1912年在Salir抄录的副本。另一块残片（EDH HD046353）则是为一位Paullus Ser[gius]的岳母而立的荣誉铭文。", "彼西底的安提阿一篇公元81至96年的希腊文荣誉铭文（IGR III 300）提到Lucius之女[Ser]gia(?) Paulla，她是图密善派驻吕家和旁非利亚的使节C. Caristanius Fronto之妻；Sergia这个名字有一部分是复原的。连同上述基座，这篇铭文指向一世纪后期在彼西底的安提阿受到尊崇的Sergii Paulli元老家族。", "索利的一篇墓志铭（IGR III 930）记载，Apollonios担任监察官（censor）时，在第10年、一位名叫Paulus的省长任内修订了议事会名册（称号部分为复原；未注明纪元）。Kythrea的一块残片（IGR III 935）被读作在一位名字已佚的皇帝旁边提到Quintus Serg-。编者把它复原为一个提及该总督的纪年格式，但Rigsby的读法不同。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些铭文都不能确切地指认《使徒行传》13:7中的省长。罗马的石刻没有提到任何塞浦路斯官职，索利的铭文只有Paulus一名，而Kythrea残片上的Paulus和“省长”二词完全出于编者的复原。", "它们不能为保罗访问塞浦路斯定年。对Kythrea铭文的复原，从提比略（Campbell：不晚于公元37年）到革老丢（SEG 20.302：公元46至48年）不等；索利铭文中的Paulus之年也没有注明纪元。", "它们不能证明彼西底的安提阿的Sergii Paulli家族是那位塞浦路斯总督的后代，也不能证明他或他的亲属成为了基督徒。Ramsay对这个家族的重构，建立在从人名和沉默所作的推论之上，他自己也称之为假说。这些石刻也没有证实以吕马的事件。" ], "debate": "《使徒行传》中的省长是否见于任何铭文？许多人把他等同于台伯河管理官L. Sergius Paullus，因为塞浦路斯的省长任期可以落在革老丢时期的管理官任期之前或之后。但正如van Elderen所强调的，没有任何文本把此人与塞浦路斯联系起来，而且《使徒行传》没有给出他的首名（praenomen）。索利的Paulus没有家族名：据van Elderen转述，Mitford推算其年代最早为公元50年，并判断这篇铭文可能还要晚得多；而Ramsay较早的读法则把这个短语当作石刻本身的日期。Kythrea残片只留下Quintus Serg-，因此Myres否定了这种关联。Campbell复原为提比略，并把这次访问定在不晚于公元37年，Bernier认为这个年代不太可能。van Elderen则认为Ramsay关于彼西底的安提阿家族的理论过于臆测，予以否定。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "认定为台伯河管理官", "statement": "按这种看法，《使徒行传》13:7中的省长就是CIL VI 31545中那位革老丢时期的台伯河管理官L. Sergius Paullus，他在担任该职之前或之后治理过塞浦路斯。名字和年代使这一看法显得可信，但没有任何铭文把他与塞浦路斯联系起来，而且《使徒行传》没有给出首名（praenomen）。" }, { "label": "Kythrea的Quintus Sergius", "statement": "按Campbell的复原，这块残片提到一位Quintus Serg[ius Paullus]，可能就是那位总督；Paulus和“省长”完全是复原的。Campbell复原为提比略，因而把塞浦路斯宣教定在不晚于公元37年，比通常的看法更早；较早的SEG 20.302读法则复原为革老丢（46至48年）。Myres假定《使徒行传》中的省长名叫Lucius，因而否定了这种关联；van Elderen则有所保留地认为它是最有吸引力的人选。" }, { "label": "Ramsay的家族假说", "statement": "Ramsay以假说的形式提出：彼西底的安提阿的L. Sergius Paullus是这位省长的儿子，Sergia Paulla是他的女儿，基督教信仰经由她传给了她的儿子，而男性一系仍信奉异教。van Elderen引用Lake的评语——这些组合虽巧妙却不能令人信服——否定了这一构想。" }, { "label": "尚无铭文证据", "statement": "没有任何存世铭文能确切地提及《使徒行传》中的省长。有好几位元老都名叫Paullus：旧帕弗（Palaepaphos）的IGR III 939提到Paullus Fabius Maximus，Dessau推断此人曾治理塞浦路斯。仅凭名字相同，无法确定身份。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/sergius-paulus-inscriptions" }, { "id": "derbe-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 157, "dateTo": 600, "corpusReferences": [ "SEG 16.758" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 14:6", "Acts 14:20-21", "Acts 16:1", "Acts 20:4" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.timothy", "person.gaius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.derbe", "place.lystra", "place.lycaonia", "place.galatia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. S. Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens III)", "year": "1888", "locator": "p. 22 (itinerary for 5 June, Bosola to Almassen)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/papersofamerican03arch/papersofamerican03arch_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I consider that the ruins of Bosola and Losta, being so near together, represent one and the same ancient city. This city I should like to call Derbe. Stephanus Byzantinus says Derbe was a fortress of Isauria, a designation which would suit this site well enough.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. VIII §5, p. 192", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Derbe alone is not mentioned either in the tradition (so far as my knowledge extends) or in the history of the Church until we come down to A.D. 381, when its bishop Daphnus was present at the Council of Constantinople.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. V §9, p. 120", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultravellerr00rams/stpaultravellerr00rams_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In Derbe nothing special is recorded : the same process went on as in previous cases. Here on the limits of the Roman province the Apostles turned.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades: Derbe/Claudioderbe", "locator": "Pleiades 648620", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/648620/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Derbe (ancient city)", "locator": "Q20717624", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q20717624.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "M. Ballance", "work": "The Site of Derbe: A New Inscription (Anatolian Studies 7)", "year": "1957", "view": "Published the dedication by the council and people of Derbe that he found in 1956 at Kerti Höyük, about 22 km north-north-east of Karaman, and argued that Derbe lay north-east of Laranda rather than at the western sites proposed by Sterrett and Ramsay. Van Elderen reports that he judged the block too heavy to have travelled far." }, { "author": "M. H. Ballance", "work": "Derbe and Faustinopolis (Anatolian Studies 14)", "year": "1964", "view": "Judged that the lack of Byzantine settlement at Kerti Höyük counted against it as the city site, and reported the Michael epitaph he was shown at Sudurağı (Sidrova) in 1958. Because that stone was said to come from Devri Şehri, he proposed Devri Şehri as Derbe (as reported by Van Elderen and by Wagner and Wilson)." }, { "author": "George Ogg", "work": "Derbe (New Testament Studies 9)", "year": "1963", "view": "In light of the re-siting, judged that no compelling reason had been given for placing Derbe in the province of Galatia in Paul's time, leaving it an open question (as reported by Van Elderen and by Wagner and Wilson)." }, { "author": "Bastiaan Van Elderen", "work": "Some Archaeological Observations on Paul's First Missionary Journey, in Apostolic History and the Gospel (ed. W. W. Gasque and R. P. Martin)", "year": "1970", "view": "Was told in 1962 that the Michael stone came from Kerti Höyük, and held that Derbe lay near, and probably on, that mound. Argued that Acts 14:20 dates only the departure for Derbe and need not mean a one-day journey, and that Derbe's provincial status in Paul's day could not yet be decided." }, { "author": "Gertrud Laminger-Pascher", "work": "Die kaiserzeitlichen Inschriften Lykaoniens, Faszikel I (Ergänzungsbände zu den Tituli Asiae Minoris 15)", "year": "1992", "view": "Corpus of the imperial-period inscriptions of Lycaonia; the MAMA XI overview of southern Lykaonia cites its Derbe section." }, { "author": "Peter Thonemann (ed.)", "work": "Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua XI (Journal of Roman Studies Monograph)", "year": "2013", "view": "Its overview of southern Lykaonia calls Kerti Höyük the likely site of ancient Derbe." }, { "author": "Richard J. A. Talbert (ed.)", "work": "Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World", "year": "2000", "view": "Map 66 has an entry Derbe/Claudioderbe (cited by Pleiades). Wagner and Wilson report that the map marks Derbe/Claudioderbe at Kerti Höyük and a Derbe at Devri Şehri, leaving the centre ambiguous." }, { "author": "A. H. M. Jones", "work": "The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces", "year": "1971", "view": "As reported by Wagner and Wilson, held that Derbe probably received its Claudian prefix from Claudius himself, like Iconium and other cities refounded in his reign, and so was not in the kingdom of Antiochus IV." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Cities of St. Paul", "year": "1907", "view": "Placed Derbe at the Gudelisin mound north-west of Karaman, arguing from surface remains, road geography and a bishopric-list gloss linking Derbe with Possala; he had no inscription naming the city." }, { "author": "Cilliers Breytenbach and Christiane Zimmermann", "work": "Early Christianity in Lycaonia and Adjacent Areas: From Paul to Amphilochius of Iconium", "year": "2018", "view": "As reported by Wagner and Wilson: both mounds lie within Derbe's territory, and the city was near the Laranda-Sidamaria road. They also hold that Derbe was under Antiochus IV of Commagene, not Roman rule, when Paul visited." }, { "author": "Bob Wagner and Mark Wilson", "work": "Why Derbe? An Unlikely Lycaonian City for Paul's Ministry (Tyndale Bulletin 70.1)", "year": "2019", "view": "Review the history of attempts to locate Derbe. They hold that the two inscriptions situate it more precisely but leave the choice between Kerti Höyük and Devri Şehri open, and report that excavation begun at Kerti Höyük in 2013 did not continue and is unpublished." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "648620", "label": "Derbe/Claudioderbe" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q20717624", "label": "Derbe (ancient city)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "59721", "label": "Derbe (Kerti Hüyük)" } ], "title": "卡拉曼附近提及特庇的铭文（Kerti Höyük与Devri Şehri）", "summary": "在卡拉曼（古称拉兰达）东北的平原上，有两篇希腊文铭文提到特庇。一篇是公元157年献给安东尼·庇护的城市献辞，1956年在Kerti Höyük（又拼作Kerti Hüyük）发现。另一篇是年代较晚的特庇主教米海尔的墓志铭，见于附近的Sudurağı。两者合起来，把《使徒行传》14:20–21和16:1中的特庇定位在这一地区。两篇都不属于一世纪，而城址的确切位置仍有争议。", "dating": "献给安东尼·庇护的城市献辞为公元157年（Van Elderen；Wagner与Wilson）。主教墓志铭只写明某个第十四小纪年（indiction）的6月8日；Van Elderen判断其字体可能属于四世纪末至五世纪，Wagner与Wilson则定为五至六世纪。", "currentLocation": "科尼亚考古博物馆（献辞；据Van Elderen 1970，以及引用McLean 2002的Wagner与Wilson 2019）。卡拉曼考古博物馆花园（米海尔墓志铭；据Wagner与Wilson 2019）。", "establishes": [ "1956年，Ballance在卡拉曼东北偏北约22公里处的Kerti Höyük土丘坡上，发现一块刻字的石灰岩石块（SEG 16.758）。它是向安东尼·庇护致敬的献辞，年代为公元157年，由特庇的议事会（boule）和民众（demos）所立；已发表的文本把该城的城民称谓复原为[Claudio]derbetans。", "因此，在二世纪中叶，特庇是一个自治的城市共同体，拥有自己的议事会和公民大会，并以希腊城市通常的形式向皇帝致敬。", "一篇基督教墓志铭称米海尔为最爱神的特庇主教，日期只写某个第十四小纪年的6月8日。Ballance于1958年、Van Elderen于1962年在Sudurağı（Sidrova）见过它。它证明同一地区后来有特庇主教区。", "这两篇文本合起来，把《使徒行传》14:6、14:20–21和16:1中的特庇定位在拉兰达东北，距路司得直线约95公里。这取代了早先把它定在卡拉曼西北的各种方案（Sterrett提出的Bosola和Losta，后者又称Zosta；Ramsay提出的Gudelisin），而这些方案都没有任何提及特庇的铭文作为依据。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "两篇铭文都不属于保罗的时代。献辞晚了约一个世纪，墓志铭则更晚。它们证实的是这座城市及其后来的教会，而不是保罗和巴拿巴在那里传道、在那里使人成为门徒，也不是提摩太或该犹与特庇的关系。", "两块石头都不是在有记录的发掘中发现的。献辞石块躺在土丘的坡上，墓志铭的出土地点则依据Ballance和Van Elderen各自听到的、互相矛盾的说法。因此，这些石头不能决定城镇中心是在Kerti Höyük、Devri Şehri，还是一片包含两者的更大领地。", "该城冠以革老丢之名，并不能确定它在四十年代的地位：Breytenbach与Zimmermann（据Wagner与Wilson转述）认为这是在科马基尼的安条克四世治下获得的荣誉，Jones则认为这个前缀是革老丢本人所赐，这样特庇就在安条克的王国之外。", "它们与《使徒行传》14:20并无冲突。重新定位后，特庇距路司得约95公里，但这节经文只标明出发的时间，没有标明抵达的时间，因此不一定是指一天的路程（Van Elderen）。" ], "debate": "Ballance判断，这块沉重的石块（据Van Elderen约重一吨）不太可能被移动很远，因而把特庇定在Kerti Höyük或其附近。1964年，他改而倾向于东南偏南约4公里处的Devri Şehri，因为Kerti Höyük没有拜占庭时期聚落的迹象，而主教的石碑据说出自Devri Şehri。Van Elderen在1962年听说它出自Kerti Höyük，又注意到附近几处土丘上有拜占庭时期的遗物，所以仍主张Kerti Höyük。Van Elderen、MAMA和卡拉曼省的遗址清册都倾向于Kerti Höyük；据Wagner与Wilson报告，《巴林顿地图集》则两处都有标示。Wagner与Wilson还报告，发掘工作于2013年开始，但没有继续，也没有发表成果。保罗到来时，特庇是否位于罗马加拉太行省之内，仍是另一个悬而未决的问题。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "以Devri Şehri为城址", "statement": "Ballance（1964）倾向于Kerti Höyük东南偏南约4公里处的Devri Şehri，因为Kerti Höyük没有拜占庭时期聚落的迹象，而主教墓志铭据说出自Devri Şehri。Wagner与Wilson指出，《IVP地图集》采用了这一定位。" }, { "label": "同属一片领地，中心未定", "statement": "据Wagner与Wilson（2019）转述，Breytenbach与Zimmermann（2018）认为两处土丘都位于特庇的领地之内，并把该城定在拉兰达至Sidamaria的道路附近，但没有确定其城区中心。" }, { "label": "较早的西北方案", "statement": "1956年以前，Sterrett（Bosola和Losta，后者又称Zosta）以及后来的Ramsay（Gudelisin，见1907年的《圣保罗的城市》）都把特庇定在卡拉曼西北，较靠近路司得。Sterrett深信特庇必定靠近路司得；Ramsay依据的是地表遗迹、道路地理以及一份晚期主教区名录中的注释。两人都没有提及特庇的铭文，近来的地图集也已放弃这种看法。" }, { "label": "保罗时代的特庇不在该行省之内", "statement": "Ogg（1963）认为，重新定位之后，保罗时代的特庇是否位于加拉太行省之内，仍是悬而未决的问题；Van Elderen补充了钱币证据，表明邻近的拉兰达自公元41年起属于安条克四世。Breytenbach与Zimmermann（据转述）把特庇归于安条克四世治下，Jones则认为其城名中的革老丢前缀来自革老丢本人。这个问题的答案关系到《加拉太书》的南加拉太说。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-derbe-inscription" }, { "id": "corinth-macellum", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -27, "dateTo": 50, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.2 124", "Corinth VIII.2 125", "Corinth VIII.3 321", "EDH HD058881", "EDH HD058882", "EDCS-32001248", "EDCS-08200358", "TM 177612", "TM 177613" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Corinthians 10:25", "1 Corinthians 10:23-33", "1 Corinthians 8:1-13", "Acts 18:1-18" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus (West 124 + Kent 321, copy 1)", "locator": "EDH HD058881", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD058881", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (Cowey)", "year": "2010" }, { "sourceKey": "edh-heidelberg", "work": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg: building/dedicatory inscription from Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthus (West 125, copy 2)", "locator": "EDH HD058882", "url": "https://edh.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/edh/inschrift/HD058882", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Epigraphic Database Heidelberg (Cowey)", "year": "2012" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (Corinth-08-02, 00124; Corinth-08-03, 00321)", "locator": "EDCS-32001248", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/320/32001248.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (Corinth-08-02, 00125)", "locator": "EDCS-08200358", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/082/08200358.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: Corinth macellum dedication, copy 1", "locator": "TM 177612", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/177612", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: Corinth macellum dedication, copy 2", "locator": "TM 177613", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/177613", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Henry J. Cadbury", "work": "The Macellum of Corinth (Journal of Biblical Literature 53)", "year": "1934", "view": "Cadbury believed he was the first to link the Corinthian MACELLV fragment, which he says was found in 1898, to Paul's term in 1 Corinthians 10:25. He reported West's dating to the last years of Augustus or the reign of Tiberius, questioned the assumption that both copies had identical wording and named a single Macellum Piscarium, and reported de Waele's proposal of two separate market buildings. He held that macella sold fish and other provisions as well as meat, doubted that they were necessarily close to idolatry, noted that the word's ultimate origin is disputed though it was regarded as Roman, and left the building's location open." }, { "author": "Allen Brown West", "work": "Corinth VIII.2: Latin Inscriptions, 1896-1926", "year": "1931", "view": "West published nos. 124 and 125 as dedications of a macellum by the Cornelii, with a piscarium, and on epigraphic grounds placed them in the last years of Augustus or the reign of Tiberius. Cadbury and Gill describe differently whether he inferred one combined Macellum Piscarium or a separate fish market. Known here only through their reports and the EDH and EDCS records." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Kent added a thirteenth fragment of copy 1, found in the South Basilica in 1936 (no. 321), revised West's text of no. 124, read the freedman's patron as Quintus, and translated the restored text as a meat market given with a fish market. He dated it to the reign of Augustus by the tail of the letter Q." }, { "author": "Ned Nabers", "work": "A Note on Corinth VIII, 2, 125 (American Journal of Archaeology 73)", "year": "1969", "view": "As Gill (1992) summarizes it, Nabers argued that the Cornelii are unlikely to have built two buildings serving the same function. On this view the 'macellum cum ...' formula lists features of one complex, here including provision for fish." }, { "author": "David W. J. Gill", "work": "The Meat-Market at Corinth (1 Corinthians 10:25) (Tyndale Bulletin 43.2)", "year": "1992", "view": "Gill argues that the pair of Latin inscriptions establishes a Corinthian macellum, given probably in the Augustan period by a member of the local elite, with fish facilities inside one complex. He sets aside the South Stoa graffito once read as naming a butcher because Broneer revised it to a personal name. He reports de Waele's Peribolos proposal, Wiseman's note of a macellum north of Temple Hill and Ward-Perkins's description of the North Market, says the macellum has not been identified with certainty, and infers its probable form from macella at Pompeii and Lepcis Magna." }, { "author": "Gordon D. Fee", "work": "The First Epistle to the Corinthians", "year": "1987", "view": "As quoted by Gill (1992), Fee treated a Latin macellum inscription from Corinth as undoubtedly naming the very market Paul refers to, without citing the inscription." }, { "author": "Vasilis Evangelidis", "work": "Macella and Makelloi in Roman Greece: The Archaeological and Textual Evidence (Hesperia 88.2)", "year": "2019", "view": "Evangelidis surveys the evidence, mostly inscriptions and texts, for food-market buildings in Roman Greece from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD, treating makellos as the likely Hellenized form of Latin macellum, and asks what they reveal about Italo-Roman influence. EDCS cites this article for both Corinth texts. Only the abstract was checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177612", "label": "Corinth macellum dedication, copy 1 (Corinth VIII.2 124 + VIII.3 321)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "177613", "label": "Corinth macellum dedication, copy 2 (Corinth VIII.2 125)" } ], "title": "罗马时期哥林多的macellum（肉市）铭文", "summary": "罗马时期的哥林多有一座正式称为macellum的公共市场建筑；这个拉丁词通常与保罗在《哥林多前书》10:25提到的市场联系在一起。一块残片保存了MACELLV[M]字样；另一篇高度平行的献辞则照此复原。这些铭文的年代在奥古斯都至提比略时期，记载Q. Cornelius Secundus及其家人为捐赠者，似乎还一并捐赠了一处鱼市设施（piscarium）。它们没有说明这座建筑位于何处、五十年代是否仍在使用，或出售什么肉类。", "dating": "奥古斯都至提比略时期。EDCS定为公元前27年至公元14年；Kent根据字体把副本1定在奥古斯都在位期间；据Cadbury转述，West定为奥古斯都晚年或提比略在位期间；发掘记录则定为公元一世纪上半叶。公元前27年至公元50年这个范围涵盖了上述各种估计。", "currentLocation": "古哥林多的哥林多发掘处（以库存号引用的残片I 70和I 27都属于副本1；库存或展出状态尚未核实）。", "establishes": [ "两篇高度平行的白色大理石拉丁文献辞以残片形式留存，通常被视为副本。副本1（Corinth VIII.2 124，Kent扩充为VIII.3 321）由编者从数块残片拼合而成；副本2为VIII.2 125。MACELLV[这几个字母只见于副本1；在副本2中，macellum一词完全是复原的。", "捐赠者是Aemilia部落的Q. Cornelius Secundus、他的妻子Maecia和他们的子女。一位被释奴Q. Maecius Cleogenes的名字以属格出现在一个部分复原的短语中，可能是作为女儿Cornelia Secunda的丈夫，而不是作为捐赠者。", "残存的字母PI[（副本1）和]SCARIO（副本2）被复原为piscarium，即与macellum一同捐赠的鱼市设施。它位于macellum之内还是之旁，仍有争论。无论如何，这项捐赠都符合Cadbury的观点：macella出售鱼和其他食品，而不只是肉。", "Kent根据字体把副本1定在奥古斯都在位期间，West则把两篇文本都定在奥古斯都晚年或提比略治下。因此，一座称为macellum的建筑在保罗留居哥林多（《使徒行传》18章）之前就已捐给这个殖民地，可能早了几十年。", "这个拉丁词在这个罗马殖民地中是正式的公共用语。保罗在《哥林多前书》10:25所用的词是makellon；在罗马时期，这个词被视为拉丁文的macellum（其最终来源仍有争议），而且正如Cadbury所指出的，它是保罗书信中极少数的拉丁借词之一。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "macellum位于何处。Kent补入的残片出自南巴西利卡，Gill也说这座建筑尚未被确切辨认出来。他转述了Ward-Perkins把哥林多北市场描述为庞贝式市场的说法，以及Wiseman提到神庙山以北有一座macellum的记述，但没有任何证据把这些铭文与其中任何一处联系起来，也无法把它们与任何确定在保罗时代使用中的建筑联系起来。", "保罗写信时这座建筑是否仍在使用，或者那里出售的肉有多少来自神庙献祭。存世的文本只列出捐赠者和建筑，没有说明它的买卖或货源。", "《使徒行传》18章的任何事件，或哥林多信徒关于祭偶像之物的争论中的任何细节。另外，据Gill报告，南柱廊的一则希腊文涂鸦曾被读作提到一名屠夫，后来其发掘者Broneer重新把它读作人名，所以它不能作为这个市场的证据。" ], "debate": "仍有三个问题悬而未决。第一，piscarium是同一座macellum的一部分（Nabers的看法，Gill从之），还是另一座独立的建筑？据Cadbury转述，De Waele提出莱卡翁大道附近有两座市场建筑；Cadbury认为可能有一座独立但相连的鱼市；而Cadbury和Gill对West本人读法的描述并不相同。第二，这座建筑位于何处？De Waele把它定在莱卡翁大道旁阿波罗围院的位置（据Cadbury和Gill的转述）；Gill也提到Ward-Perkins把北市场描述为庞贝式市场。这些地点都没有与铭文联系起来。第三，市场上的肉与献祭的关系有多密切？Cadbury怀疑macella本身就与神庙崇拜关系密切。保罗在《哥林多前书》10:25–28的指示，预设买肉的人未必知道肉是否献过祭。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "两座独立的市场建筑", "statement": "De Waele在1934年的一封信中（据Cadbury转述）提出：macellum位于后来阿波罗围院所在之处，另有一座独立的piscarium位于罗马巴西利卡以北。Cadbury认为可能有一座独立但相连的鱼市。Gill说West（Kent从之）读出的是一座独立的Macellum Piscarium；Cadbury则说早期的读法推断只有一座。" }, { "label": "一座附设鱼市设施的macellum", "statement": "据Gill转述，Nabers（1969）认为Cornelii家族不太可能捐赠两座功能相同的建筑。其他macellum铭文用“macellum cum……”来列举同一建筑群的各项设施，所以哥林多的macellum很可能包括售鱼的设施。Gill（1992）采纳这种读法。" }, { "label": "正是保罗所指的市场", "statement": "据Gill引述，Fee（1987）认为一篇哥林多的macellum铭文所提到的，正是《哥林多前书》10:25中的那个市场。如果这座建筑在五十年代仍是这个殖民地的食品市场，这种看法是可信的；但这些铭文既没有表明它留存下来，也没有表明它位于何处，更没有表明它是唯一出售肉类的地方。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-corinth-macellum" }, { "id": "corinth-bema", "kind": "site", "dateFrom": -44, "dateTo": 54, "corpusReferences": [ "Corinth VIII.3 322", "Corinth VIII.2 47", "Corinth VIII.2 52", "Corinth VIII.3 157", "Corinth VIII.3 306", "Corinth VIII.3 728", "AE 1939, 110", "AE 1947, 198", "EDCS-08200272", "EDCS-15300190" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "reconstructed", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 25:6", "Acts 25:17", "John 19:13" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.gallio", "person.sosthenes" ], "placeIds": [ "place.corinth", "place.achaia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby", "work": "EDCS record of the rostra revetment inscription, Corinth (cites West no. 47; = Kent no. 322)", "locator": "EDCS-08200272", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/082/08200272.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby", "work": "EDCS record of a governor's letter to Corinth with the note that it was read from the rostra (AE 1939, 110; = Kent no. 306)", "locator": "EDCS-15300190", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/153/15300190.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Corinthus/Korinthos", "locator": "570182", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/570182/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Oscar Broneer", "work": "Studies in the Topography of Corinth at the Time of St. Paul (Archaiologike Ephemeris)", "year": "1937", "view": "Cited by Scranton (1957) for the view that the church on the Bema commemorated Paul's trial there (bibliography only, not inspected)." }, { "author": "Robert L. Scranton", "work": "Corinth I.3: Monuments in the Lower Agora and North of the Archaic Temple", "year": "1951", "view": "Standard architectural publication of the Bema; Kent relies on it for the revetment fit and an original poros facade (bibliography only, not inspected)." }, { "author": "Allen Brown West", "work": "Corinth VIII.2: Latin Inscriptions, 1896-1926", "year": "1931", "view": "First published two of the fragments that Kent later joined into no. 322, as West nos. 47 and 52, before the fragment preserving ROST was found in 1937-1938 (known here through Kent's concordance and EDCS)." }, { "author": "John Harvey Kent", "work": "Corinth VIII.3: The Inscriptions, 1926-1950", "year": "1966", "view": "Restored scattered marble fragments as a building text naming the rostra and, matching the slab's thickness and finish to the platform's orthostates, concluded that the central structure was the Bema, officially called the Rostra, with marble revetments of the first half of the 1st century AD, probably the second quarter. He held that it first had a poros facade, and thought a 9th/10th-century text naming a church of Paul probably belonged to the church on the Bema." }, { "author": "Robert L. Scranton", "work": "Corinth XVI: Mediaeval Architecture in the Central Area of Corinth", "year": "1957", "view": "Found a church or burial chapel near the Bema from the 9th or early 10th century, and a church on the Bema certainly by the 12th. He judged that the common explanation, that the church commemorated Paul's trial, requires a continuity from antiquity that is difficult to establish." }, { "author": "Andrew Gallia (Corinth Computer Project, dir. David Gilman Romano)", "work": "Central Shops, Bema, and Temple of Hermes (Corinth Computer Project, Roman Forum ca. A.D. 150)", "year": "2007", "view": "Holds that the Rostra was likely built soon after the colony's foundation in 44 BC, its concrete core faced with poros blocks, and that its white marble decoration and flanking benched alcoves came later, tentatively in the early to mid-1st century AD. It served events such as public oratory and important legal tribunals." }, { "author": "Paul D. Scotton, Catherine de Grazia Vanderpool and Carolynn Roncaglia", "work": "Corinth XXII: The Julian Basilica: Architecture, Sculpture, Epigraphy", "year": "2022", "view": "According to the publisher's description, the Julian Basilica at the east end of the forum held one of the largest known shrines to the imperial cult and was the likely site of the imperial court of law for the province of Achaia. That makes it a possible alternative venue for formal proconsular hearings." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos (the ancient city; no separate Pleiades entry for the bema)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1363688", "label": "Ancient Corinth (the city; no Wikidata item found for the bema itself)" } ], "title": "哥林多罗马广场上的审判台（bema，即rostra）", "summary": "有可能，但无法证明。哥林多罗马广场上的大平台，是迦流拒绝审判保罗的那座审判台（bēma）的合理候选（《使徒行传》18:12–17）。Kent把散落的大理石残片复原为一篇称它为这个殖民地之rostra（演讲台）的铭文；到保罗的时代，那里很可能已有某种平台。没有任何古代来源指出这个地点，这一认定是根据发掘作出的现代推论，而尤利乌斯巴西利卡中的审判台也是一个值得认真考虑的替代方案。", "dating": "平台很可能建于公元前44年殖民地建立后不久，起初为多孔石灰岩（poros）立面（Corinth Computer Project；Kent）。东侧带长凳壁龛的一块刻字额枋，暂定为奥古斯都时期（Kent 157）。Kent根据字体把大理石饰面（Kent 322）定在公元一世纪上半叶，很可能在该世纪的第二个二十五年，不过他的建筑年表把它列在革老丢时期。从九世纪或十世纪初起，平台附近有一座教堂或墓葬小礼拜堂；到十二世纪，平台上已确定建有教堂（Scranton）。", "currentLocation": "平台原址保存在希腊古哥林多考古遗址的罗马广场。Kent 322的饰面板残片（Kent库存号285、410、682、727、1929、2119）属于哥林多发掘处的藏品；其库存或展出状态未经核实。", "establishes": [ "Kent把1901至1938年间在广场周围发现的白色大理石饰面板残片拼合成一篇建筑铭文，并把其中残存的字母ROST复原为rost[ra]（Corinth VIII.3 322；EDCS-08200272）。他把石板的厚度和表面处理与平台饰面相比对，得出结论：中央平台的正式名称是Rostra，即希腊文bēma（审判台）的拉丁对应词。", "东侧schola的一块刻字额枋暂定为奥古斯都时期（Kent 157）。Kent把大理石饰面定在一世纪上半叶，很可能在该世纪的第二个二十五年，不过他的建筑年表把它列在革老丢时期。因此，五十年代初迦流治理亚该亚时，广场上很可能已有一座平台，至少是以多孔石灰岩为饰面的较早形式。", "约公元170年，哥林多有一座用来宣读官方书信的rostra（Kent 306；AE 1939, 110）。这篇文本没有说明那是哪一座建筑，而且只反映二世纪的做法。", "《使徒行传》18:12、16和17把迦流的审讯放在一座bēma前。发掘表明，哥林多的市政中心确有一座这类显眼的公共平台，所以路加所写的场景符合这座城市的布局。不过，任何行省首府都会有这样的审判台，因此这种吻合是意料之中的，而非独特的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "保罗曾站在这座平台前。没有任何古代文本或铭文把它与迦流或保罗联系起来；这一认定是根据平台的位置和功能作出的现代推论。", "审讯的日期或细节。迦流的任期是由另一份出自德尔斐的革老丢书信来定年的，而《使徒行传》是这次审讯唯一的记载。", "基督教对保罗曾在此处的连续记忆。从九世纪或十世纪初起，平台附近有一座教堂或墓葬小礼拜堂，到十二世纪平台上已确定建有教堂；Scranton认为，从古代延续至此所需的连续性难以确立。一篇九或十世纪提到一座[圣]保罗教堂的铭文（Kent 728），表明那时已有献给保罗的教堂，而不是一世纪的记忆。" ], "debate": "Kent认为把它认定为总督的rostra是确定无疑的，后来的目录（EDCS）也沿用了他的复原；不过，关键词只残存ROST几个字母，Kent本人也承认，他的复原未必在每个细节上都正确。仍有三个问题悬而未决。第一，迦流的审讯是在这座平台前进行，还是在别处的审判台前？根据出版社对Corinth XXII（2022）的介绍，尤利乌斯巴西利卡很可能是该行省帝国法庭的所在地。第二，今天可见的大理石阶段，有多少早于迦流的任期？第三，平台上的中世纪教堂是保存了古代的记忆，还是反映了后来的认定？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "在巴西利卡开庭", "statement": "省长的正式审讯可能是在巴西利卡里举行，而不是在露天的rostra上。出版社对Corinth XXII（2022）的介绍称，位于广场东端的尤利乌斯巴西利卡很可能是亚该亚帝国法庭的所在地。迦流的审判台可能就设在那里。该介绍没有讨论保罗。" }, { "label": "bēma指审判台，而非某座建筑", "statement": "《使徒行传》用同一个词称非斯都在该撒利亚的审判台（《使徒行传》25:6；25:17），《约翰福音》也用它指彼拉多在名为铺石地之处的审判台（《约翰福音》19:13）。总督的审判台出现在不同的场景中，所以《使徒行传》18章不一定是指那座常设的rostra；广场上的平台只是几个可信的候选之一。" }, { "label": "中世纪的认定，而非记忆", "statement": "平台上的拜占庭教堂，反映的可能是基督教后来对这处地点的认定，而不是从一世纪流传下来的记忆。Scranton认为必要的连续性难以确立，而附近最早有据可查的、献给保罗的教堂（Kent 728）属于九或十世纪。" }, { "label": "保罗时代的建筑较早或尚未完工", "statement": "Kent的建筑年表把大理石饰面列在革老丢时期（公元41至54年），不过他的正文倾向于该世纪的第二个二十五年。因此，大理石rostra可能是在迦流任期前夕完工，也可能在其后；保罗看到的，可能是较早以poros（当地石灰岩）为饰面的平台。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/corinth-bema" }, { "id": "malta-protos", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 1, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [ "IG XIV 601", "IGRR I 512", "CIG 5754", "PHI 140928", "I.Sicily ISic003683", "TM 285166", "EDR112577", "EDCS-39101548", "CIL X 7495", "ILS 5415", "EDCS-22100614", "EDR112567", "TM 285139" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 28:7", "Acts 28:1-10", "Acts 13:50", "Acts 28:17" ], "personIds": [ "person.publius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.malta" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "kaibel-ig-xiv", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae XIV: Inscriptiones Siciliae et Italiae", "author": "Georg Kaibel (ed.)", "year": "1890", "locator": "IG XIV 601, p. 142 (lemma, text and commentary)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C/page/n190", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: IG XIV 601", "locator": "EDCS-39101548 (IG 14, 00601)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/391/39101548.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: IG XIV 601", "locator": "TM 285166", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/285166", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby: CIL X 7495", "locator": "EDCS-22100614 (CIL 10, 07495 (p 994) = D 05415)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/221/22100614.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "trismegistos", "work": "Trismegistos text relations: CIL X 7495", "locator": "TM 285139", "url": "https://www.trismegistos.org/dataservices/texrelations/uri/285139", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "author": "James Smith", "year": "1848", "locator": "pp. 112-114 (Malta; the title of Publius)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog/page/n168", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "may mean either that Publius was the principal person in the island, as our translators have understood it, or it may be an official title.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XIV, sec. 9 'Malta', p. 343", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paulthetraveller00ramsuoft/page/n362", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title \"first\" is technically correct in Melita: it has inscriptional authority.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "First Person Narrative in Acts 27-28 (Tyndale Bulletin 36)", "year": "1985", "view": "Treats IG XIV 601 (= IGRR I 512), dated AD 14-37, as attesting the title of Malta's chief local magistrate. He judges the Latin CIL X 7495 indecisive, because its first line is usually quoted out of a mutilated context, and, citing Greek parallels, thinks primus there more likely means first to perform the benefactions listed. He notes that several commentators cite the Latin text as confirming Luke without addressing its restoration." }, { "author": "Loredana Cappelletti", "work": "Documenti epigrafici sulle istituzioni di Melita (Malta) in età romana (Gerión 42, special issue)", "year": "2024", "view": "Treats the Greek inscription's title, the title in Acts 28:7 and CIL X 7495 as one settled, official local title rooted in Melita's social and economic hierarchy, with likely municipal effects; agrees with Suhl's honorific parallels; and leaves its actual powers open. She records that modern opinion is divided between a supreme local magistracy and an honorific title, notes that IG XIV 601 is now lost, and dates Melita's municipium probably to Augustus, against Ashby's later date." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "462311", "label": "Melita/Malta (island)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "462310", "label": "Melita (town at Mdina/Rabat; findspot of both texts)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "285166", "label": "IG XIV 601 (TM text record)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "285139", "label": "CIL X 7495 (TM text record)" } ], "title": "马尔他的“马尔他人之首”：希腊文与拉丁文铭文中的protos称号", "summary": "马尔他确实使用过与《使徒行传》28:7给部百流的称号相似的头衔：一篇已佚失、只凭近代早期抄本为人所知的希腊文铭文（IG XIV 601），称罗马骑士L. Castricius Prudens为“马尔他人之首”。一座二世纪的拉丁文基座（CIL X 7495）上有残缺、部分复原的primus omni[um]，其含义仍有争议。两篇文本都没有提到部百流，学者们对这个称号表示官职还是荣誉也意见不一。", "dating": "IG XIV 601：公元一世纪（EDR和EDCS定为公元1至100年；据Kaibel记载，Mommsen定为提比略时期，Hemer亦然，即公元14至37年）。CIL X 7495：公元二世纪（EDR定为公元100至200年；EDCS定为公元101至200年）。", "currentLocation": "IG XIV 601：已佚失（EDR112577；Cappelletti 2024）。CIL X 7495：马尔他拉巴特的罗马古物博物馆（据EDR112567）。", "establishes": [ "IG XIV 601现已佚失，只凭近代早期抄本为人所知。它称Quirina部落的罗马骑士L. Castricius Prudens（氏族名部分为复原）为“马尔他人之首”和恩主（patron），并说他曾任执政官（archon）及神君奥古斯都的amphipolos（祭司）。", "在帝国早期，至少有一位马尔他的显要人物拥有这个称号，因此《使徒行传》28:7用于部百流的用语符合当地用法。", "CIL X 7495是一块出自姆迪纳的二世纪拉丁文大理石残块，可能是雕像基座，用来表彰一位不知名的神庙工程捐助者，工程包括柱子、台基和铺地。其残缺的第一行读作[muni]cipi(i) Mel(itensium) primus omni[um]；该行开头已佚，残存字词的含义也有争议。", "这篇希腊文铭文显示，一世纪初已有执政官、恩主和奥古斯都的祭司职。在这两篇文本中，只有二世纪的拉丁文基座证实了市议员（decurions）和自治市地位。马尔他何时成为municipium（自治市），仍有争论。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "两篇铭文都没有提到部百流。两者都不能证实船难、保罗的停留、部百流父亲得医治，或《使徒行传》28:1–10中的任何其他事件。", "这个称号在公元60年前后带有什么权力（如果有的话）。这些文本的年代从公元一世纪初到二世纪，而且希腊文铭文把“首”与持有者过去担任执政官的经历并列，而不是用它来取代后者。", "CIL X 7495中的primus omni[um]是称号，而不是一个讲述所列捐献、意为“众人中第一个……”的从句的开头。", "船在马尔他的什么地方靠岸。" ], "debate": "有两个问题悬而未决。第一，“首”在马尔他是什么意思？Smith和Ramsay把它视为正式称号；Kaibel认为它是一种明确的城市荣誉，并把它与部百流联系起来；Hemer则把它读作当地最高长官的称号。另一些人，尤其是Suhl，把它当作荣誉称呼。Cappelletti接受Suhl所举的荣誉性平行例子，却又称它是社会和经济等级中一个固定的、正式的地方称号，而对其权力问题不作定论。在IG XIV 601中，它与“曾任执政官”并列，而不是取而代之。第二，CIL X 7495中残缺的拉丁短语是否与之对应？Hemer引用希腊文的平行例子，判断这篇拉丁文本不足以定论，并认为primus更可能是指第一个作出所列捐献的人。马尔他何时成为municipium也有争议：据Kaibel记载，Mommsen从Castricius铭文推断，提比略时期的马尔他人还没有罗马公民身份；Cappelletti则认为这个municipium很可能设立于奥古斯都时期，而不同意Ashby所定的较晚年代。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "荣誉地位，而非官职", "statement": "这个称号可能只是以荣誉方式标明岛上首要的显要人物，而不是指一个明确的官职。类似的“行省之首”和“城市之首”称号见于帝国东部的希腊文铭文，Suhl搜集了这些例子，Cappelletti也作了综述。按这种看法，部百流是马尔他首屈一指的人物，但这个称号并没有告诉我们他有什么正式权力。" }, { "label": "《使徒行传》中的描述性说法", "statement": "路加可能只是在非术语的意义上，把部百流描述为岛上的首要人物。路加也用这个词的复数，指彼西底的安提阿的首要人物和罗马的犹太领袖（《使徒行传》13:50；28:17）。Smith（1848）先阐述了这种读法（较早的英文译者也采用这种读法），然后才主张它是正式称号。" }, { "label": "CIL X 7495中的“第一个做某事的人”", "statement": "在这座拉丁文基座上，primus omni[um]可能是一个“众人中第一个……”从句的开头。Hemer（1985）引用希腊文的平行例子，判断这篇文本不足以定论。确有使用这种格式的拉丁文荣誉铭文，例如CIL XI 6054和CIL IX 2237；这些平行例子来自本条目在EDCS中的检索，而不是来自Hemer。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-malta-protos" }, { "id": "philippi-colony-magistrates", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": -42, "dateTo": 161, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 1649", "RPC I 1650", "RPC I 1653", "EDCS-15900071", "AE 1938, 52", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 253", "CIPh II.1, 136", "EDCS-43000131", "AE 2006, 1330", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 324a", "CIPh II.1, 121", "EDCS-24200017", "CIL III 14206,19", "Pilhofer, Philippi II 452", "CIPh II.1, 15", "EDCS-20200004", "CIL II 5439", "ILS 6087", "CIL II²/5, 1022" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 16:10-17", "Acts 16:12", "Acts 16:19-24", "Acts 16:35-39", "Acts 22:25-29", "Acts 25:10-12", "1 Thessalonians 2:2", "2 Corinthians 11:25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.claudius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.philippi", "place.macedonia", "place.amphipolis" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Funerary text for [Varin]ius Macedo, aedile, quaestor, IIvir iure dicundo at Philippi, munerarius (dated 1st century AD)", "locator": "EDCS-15900071 = AE 1938, 52 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 253 = CIPh II.1, 136", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/15900071", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Inscription for M. Figilius Pudens, holder of honorary decurional rank (ornamenta decurionalia), aedile, IIvir iure dicundo at Philippi, flamen of Antoninus (AD 138-161)", "locator": "EDCS-43000131 = AE 2006, 1330 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 324a = CIPh II.1, 121", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/43000131", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Dedication by col(onia) Philipp(iensium) to the children and grandchildren of Augustus (EDCS date 1st century AD)", "locator": "EDCS-24200017 = CIL III 14206,19 = Pilhofer, Philippi II 452 = CIPh II.1, 15", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/24200017", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "author": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby (University of Zurich)", "work": "Lex Coloniae Genetivae Iuliae (Urso charter), ch. 62: each duovir to have two lictors, an accensus, two scribes and two viatores", "locator": "EDCS-20200004 = CIL II 5439 = ILS 6087 = CIL II²/5, 1022, ch. LXII", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/monument/20200004", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1917", "work": "Roman History, Book 51", "locator": "51.4.6", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "To most of those who were dispossessed he made compensation by permitting them to settle in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "work": "Life of Claudius", "locator": "Claud. 25.3", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Those who usurped the privileges of Roman citizenship he executed in the Esquiline field.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. X, §3 'Accusation and Condemnation in Philippi'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title Prætors was not technically accurate, but was frequently employed as a courtesy title for the supreme magistrates of a Roman colony; and, as usual, Luke moves on the plane of educated conversation in such matters, and not on the plane of rigid technical accuracy.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. V, §4 'The Church at Pisidian Antioch'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now, since the Roman governors whom he met were favourable to him, these beatings must have taken place in \"colonies,\" whose magistrates were attended by lictors.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. IX, §4 'The Entrance into Macedonia'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of old Amphipolis had been the chief city of the division, to which both belonged. Afterwards Philippi quite outstripped its rival; but it was at that time in such a position, that Amphipolis was ranked first by general consent, Philippi first by its own consent.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "year": "1790", "work": "Horae Paulinae (SPCK edition, 1855)", "locator": "ch. IV (Second Epistle to the Corinthians), No. IX", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horpaulinortrut00palegoog/horpaulinortrut00palegoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "These particulars cannot be extracted out of the Acts of the Apostles; which proves, as hath been already observed, that the epistle was not framed from the history; yet they are consistent with it", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Cédric Brélaz", "work": "Philippes, colonie romaine d'Orient: Recherches d'histoire institutionnelle et sociale (BCH Supplément 59)", "year": "2018", "view": "Antony founded the colony, and its duoviri iure dicundo were its highest financial and judicial authority. Brélaz notes that the Greek title Acts uses commonly rendered duumvir, as in Greek inscriptions of the colony of Corinth, and that Acts applies it specifically to Philippi's duoviri, who send their lictors to the prison. He uses the episode to illustrate summary municipal justice while leaving its truth open." }, { "author": "Cédric Brélaz", "work": "Corpus des inscriptions grecques et latines de Philippes, II.1: La colonie romaine, La vie publique de la colonie", "year": "2014", "view": "Standard corpus of the colony's public inscriptions, including a section on municipal magistrates and local administration. It is the CIPh II.1 numbering used in the EDCS records cited here." }, { "author": "Peter Pilhofer", "work": "Philippi, Band 2: Katalog der Inschriften von Philippi (2nd edition)", "year": "2009", "view": "Catalogue of the inscriptions of Philippi and its territory. It is the source of the 'Philippi' catalogue numbers in EDCS concordances (e.g. no. 253, 324a, 452)." }, { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992", "view": "Catalogues Philippi's colonial coinage, including RPC I 1649 (legend A I C V P, expanded as Antoni iussu colonia victrix Philippensis, with Q. Paquius Rufus named as legate for founding the colony), RPC I 1650 (Augustus) and RPC I 1653 (Claudius, reverse COL AVG IVL PHILIP)." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "A Roman historian's Sarum Lectures, including 'The Roman citizenship and Acts'. He discusses the Roman rules, notably the Julian law on public violence, that protected citizens from being bound or beaten, and argues that Acts' picture of Roman legal and civic procedure fits first-century conditions as far as it can be tested." }, { "author": "John Clayton Lentz Jr.", "work": "Luke's Portrait of Paul (SNTSMS 77)", "year": "1993", "view": "Sceptical. He judges it improbable that a strict Pharisee held Roman and Tarsian citizenship, and he reads Acts' citizenship motif as part of a deliberate literary portrayal of Paul's high status and virtue." }, { "author": "Ekkehard Weber", "work": "Das römische Bürgerrecht des Apostels Paulus (Tyche 27)", "year": "2012", "view": "Argues that the appeal to the emperor (Acts 25:11) implies that Paul held Roman citizenship. He leaves open how the family acquired it, either through a grant to Tarsus or through a manumitted ancestor." }, { "author": "H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones", "work": "A Greek-English Lexicon (9th edition)", "year": "1940", "view": "Its entry for the Greek title Acts gives Philippi's magistrates includes the sense Roman praetor and applies the word to the duoviri, or chief magistrates, of Roman colonies. Its example for colonies is Acts 16:20 itself, so for that usage it is not independent of Acts." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "501482", "label": "Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q379652", "label": "Philippi (ancient city in eastern Macedonia)" } ], "title": "作为罗马殖民地的腓立比：钱币、duoviri与殖民地扈从官", "summary": "钱币、拉丁文碑文和狄奥·卡西乌斯都表明，腓立比正如《使徒行传》16:12所说，是一座罗马殖民地，由两名最高裁判官（duoviri）治理。另一座殖民地——西班牙的乌尔索——的特许状规定这类裁判官配有扈从官（lictor）。这与《使徒行传》相合：书中的裁判官下令用棍责打，后来又派来执棍的差役（《使徒行传》16:22、35–38）。但这一切都不能证实这段经过；保罗的罗马公民身份也只见于《使徒行传》。", "dating": "殖民地钱币：从公元前42年之后安东尼建立殖民地起，至革老丢在位时期（公元41至54年）；提及殖民地裁判官的拉丁文碑文：公元一至二世纪（所引最晚的一件定年为公元138至161年）；比较证据：乌尔索特许状（EDCS定年为公元前44年）", "currentLocation": "希腊东马其顿地区的腓立比（克瑞尼德斯），即腓立比碑文的出土地；乌尔索特许状出自西班牙南部的奥苏纳；钱币标本分藏于多处公私收藏（RPC）；狄奥的文本借抄本传统流传", "establishes": [ "在保罗的时代，腓立比是罗马殖民地。当地钱币在安东尼治下就称它为殖民地，币文并引述他的命令（RPC I 1649）；在奥古斯都治下亦然（RPC I 1650，COL AVG IVL PHIL IVSSV AVG）；在革老丢治下也是如此（RPC I 1653）。狄奥·卡西乌斯（51.4.6）记载，屋大维把失去土地的意大利人安置在那里。《使徒行传》16:12是新约中唯一称某座城为罗马殖民地的经文。", "腓立比出土的拉丁文碑文称殖民地的最高裁判官为IIvir iure dicundo，这一职位处在包括市政官（aedile）和财务官（quaestor）在内的罗马式仕途之中。EDCS把其中一件定为公元一世纪（EDCS-15900071）；另一件为M. Figilius Pudens而立，此人获授市议员荣誉衔（ornamenta decurionalia），定年为公元138至161年（EDCS-43000131）。殖民地本身也以奉献者的身份出现（EDCS-24200017）。", "殖民地裁判官配有扈从官。乌尔索殖民地的特许状（第62章）给每位duovir配两名扈从官，另有一名侍从（accensus）、两名书记和两名信使（EDCS-20200004）。拉姆齐推断，保罗受棍打的地方是殖民地——殖民地的裁判官有扈从官随侍。《使徒行传》符合这一情形：头衔意为“执棍者”的差役，也就是扈从官，替裁判官传话（《使徒行传》16:35、38）。", "苏维托尼乌斯记载，革老丢处决了僭取公民权的人（《革老丢传》25.3）；按通常的年表，保罗的这次到访（约公元49至50年）正值他在位期间。舍温-怀特（1963）讨论过保护公民免遭裁判官捆绑或责打的罗马法规，特别是关于公共暴力的《尤利乌斯法》。因此，《使徒行传》16:38中裁判官的惊慌，从罗马法律的角度看是可以理解的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "没有任何碑文或钱币提到《使徒行传》16章中的裁判官、狱吏、吕底亚或其他任何人，也没有记录保罗和西拉被捕、受责打、下监或获释。制度背景准确，本身并不能证明这段经过如叙述那样发生。", "这些证据不能证明保罗是罗马公民。这一说法只见于《使徒行传》（《使徒行传》16:37和22:25–29）。保罗的书信证实他在腓立比受过凌辱（《帖撒罗尼迦前书》2:2），也证实他三次被棍打（《哥林多后书》11:25），却从未提到公民身份。也有人问，一个公民为何会三次被棍打（《哥林多后书》11:25）；书信没有解释这一点。", "腓立比本身的特许状没有留存，因此关于扈从官的证据是借另一座殖民地（乌尔索）类推而来的。这里所引的拉丁文碑文用的是IIvir；腓立比说希腊话的人是否在正式或非正式场合用《使徒行传》所用的那个希腊文头衔称呼这些人，仍无定论。" ], "debate": "仍有一些问题悬而未决。腓立比的拉丁文碑文写作IIvir（duovir）。拉姆齐把《使徒行传》给这些人的头衔（他译作praetors）视为敬称；布雷拉兹则指出，同一个希腊文头衔通常就是duumvir的对译，例如哥林多殖民地的希腊文碑文就是如此。关于公民身份，伦茨怀疑一个严格的法利赛人会拥有这种身份，并把它解读为路加所刻画的保罗形象的一部分；韦伯则认为，向凯撒上诉就意味着他拥有这种身份。批评者也问，保罗为何直到受了责打之后才援引这一身份。最后，《使徒行传》16:12把腓立比列为该区的首要城市，这与暗非波里作为该分区首府由来已久的地位不甚相合。拉姆齐把这一说法理解为城市的自豪：腓立比自称拥有这一地位，而公认拥有它的是暗非波里。另有人采用一些现代校勘本所印的异文或推测读法，使腓立比成为第一区的城市；也有人把这一排名理解为荣誉的标志，而非行政等级。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "背景准确，场景出于创作", "statement": "路加或他的资料来源了解东方殖民地的运作方式。正确的头衔和程序显示作者熟悉这一背景，但也与经过戏剧化或创作而成的情节相容。按这种看法，迟迟才亮出公民身份的情节属于《使徒行传》对保罗崇高地位的文学刻画（伦茨即持此说），而不是可以查证的事件。" }, { "label": "敬称，而非术语错误", "statement": "正如碑文所示，这些裁判官在法律上是duoviri。《使徒行传》给他们的希腊文头衔，反映了对殖民地裁判官的礼貌或通俗称呼。拉姆齐认为，这一称呼在受过教育者的交谈层面是准确的，但并非术语上的精确。布雷拉兹把它视为duumvir在希腊文中的通常对应词；LSJ也把这个词用于殖民地的duoviri，不过它所举的例子正是《使徒行传》本身。" }, { "label": "叙述者消息灵通，并有部分独立佐证", "statement": "第一人称复数的叙事延伸到腓立比（《使徒行传》16:10–17），不过在被捕之前就停止了。保罗自己的书信独立地提到他在腓立比受到虐待（《帖撒罗尼迦前书》2:2）和被棍打（《哥林多后书》11:25）。佩利认为，这封书信并非取材于《使徒行传》，却与之相合；拉姆齐则认为叙述者掌握当地消息。不过，书信仍未证实公民身份的说法或审讯的细节。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-philippi-colony-magistrates" }, { "id": "festus-coins", "kind": "coin", "dateFrom": 58, "dateTo": 59, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 4972", "Meshorer 35 (as cited by RPC I 4972)" ], "confidence": "medium", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 24:10", "Acts 24:27", "Acts 25:1-12", "Acts 27:9" ], "personIds": [ "person.festus", "person.felix", "person.nero", "person.claudius", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.judea", "place.jerusalem", "place.caesarea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D8%3Awhiston+section%3D9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.137-138 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D7%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "SO Claudius sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to take care of the affairs of Judea; and when he had already completed the twelfth year of his reign, he bestowed upon Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip and Batanea", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.197 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "AND now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.200 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.271 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston+chapter%3D14%3Awhiston+section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "NOW it was that Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 6.300 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D5%3Awhiston+section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "four years before the war began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and prosperity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one to make tabernacles to God in the temple", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1895 edition", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 6.305 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D5%3Awhiston+section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Albinus (for he was then our procurator)", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 reprint", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 13.14 (narrative of AD 55)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D13%3Achapter%3D14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And so Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius, and in which he acted, so to say, as the controller of the throne.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 reprint", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 13.23 (narrative of AD 55)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D13%3Achapter%3D23", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the proved innocence of Pallas did not please men so much, as his arrogance offended them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "locator": "Claud. 45", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He died on the third day before the Ides of October in the consulship of Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola, in the sixty-fourth year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.22.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was sent by Nero to be Felix's successor. Under him Paul, having made his defense, was sent bound to Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "work": "Notes to Eusebius, Church History (NPNF, Second Series, vol. 1)", "locator": "HE 2.22.1, note 469", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The exact year of the accession of Festus is not known, but it is known that his death occurred before the summer of 62 a.d.; for at that time his successor, Albinus, was already procurator, as we can see from Josephus, B. J. VI. 5. 3.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. XIV, §3 'The Council'", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The great Fast fell in 59 on Oct. 5, and, as Paul and Aristarchus observed the Fast, Luke uses it as an indication of date.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "year": "1895", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (CCEL text of the 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "Chronological Index to the Life of St. Paul", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Imprisonment in Palestine June 57 to July 59", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992 (online edition 2019)", "view": "Catalogues the type as RPC I 4972, struck at Jerusalem under Nero in year 5 and dated AD 59, without naming the governor who issued it. Its Claudius year-14 issues (RPC I 4970-4971, AD 54) name Julia Agrippina, and Britannicus and Nero, but no governor." }, { "author": "Frederic W. Madden", "work": "Coins of the Jews (International Numismata Orientalia II)", "year": "1881", "view": "Lists the year-5 type (AD 58-59) under Felix and dates Festus to AD 60 to the end of 61, while reporting that de Saulcy had assigned the coin to Festus." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I (English translation by John Macpherson)", "year": "1890", "view": "Holds that Felix was probably recalled in AD 60, the date most investigators then preferred. Reports that Kellner (November 54) and V. Weber (summer 55) argued for an early recall from Eusebius's Chronicle and Pallas's influence, and rebuts them: the Chronicle's dates are often arbitrary, Josephus puts almost all of Felix's acts under Nero, and Pallas was acquitted before the end of 55." }, { "author": "Michael J. G. Gray-Fow", "work": "Why Festus, Not Felix? Paul's Caesarem Appello (Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 59/3)", "year": "2016", "view": "Places Festus's arrival and Paul's appeal in the summer of AD 60, and calls that date approximate but traditional." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma (mint named by RPC)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea (governor's seat)" } ], "title": "归于非斯都名下的尼禄第五年犹太钱币", "summary": "尼禄第五年（公元58/59年）为犹太铸造的小铜币，币文只有尼禄和“凯撒”之名以及年份，常被归于波求．非斯都，即《使徒行传》24:27中接替腓力斯的那位总督。这些钱币与《使徒行传》24至25章的罗马背景相合，但从未写出任何总督的名字，因此单凭它们无法确定非斯都何时到任；各家提出的年份从公元54年到61年不等。", "dating": "尼禄第5年（标为L E），即公元58/59年；尼禄于54年10月继革老丢之位（苏维托尼乌斯，《革老丢传》45）；RPC把这一币型定为公元59年", "currentLocation": "存世标本众多；RPC I 4972列出34枚，分藏于公私收藏。", "establishes": [ "尼禄在位第五年（标为L E，公元58/59年），有小铜币以他的名义为犹太铸造。一面在花环内铸有尼禄的名字；另一面在棕榈枝旁标出年份和“凯撒”之名。RPC把这一币型列在耶路撒冷名下，编为RPC I 4972，并定为公元59年。", "腓力斯任内铸造、纪年为革老丢第14年（公元54年；RPC I 4970-4971）的犹太钱币，同样没有写出总督的名字。据马登（1881）记述，德索尔西把第5年币型归于波求．非斯都，许多现代目录都沿用此说。《使徒行传》24:27和约瑟夫斯（《犹太古史》20.182；《犹太战记》2.271）都说非斯都是腓力斯的继任者，约瑟夫斯还说他是尼禄派来的。", "非斯都在阿尔比努斯到任之前死于任上（《犹太古史》20.197–200），而在战争爆发前四年的住棚节时，阿尔比努斯已经出任总督（《犹太战记》6.300–305），因此非斯都的任期不晚于公元62年结束。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些钱币没有写出总督的名字。它们属于非斯都还是腓力斯，取决于所采用的年表：马登（1881）把非斯都定在公元60至61年，并把第5年币型列在腓力斯名下。", "它们不能确定非斯都到任的年份。把它们当作他的首批铸币，是假定新任总督到任后不久就会铸币。约瑟夫斯叙述腓力斯受任命，就在一件定年于革老丢在位满十二年之后（约公元53年；《犹太古史》20.137）的事件之前；然而他任内带有革老丢纪年的犹太钱币却属于公元54年。按这一推论，铸币未必紧随到任。", "它们没有提到保罗、他在腓力斯和非斯都面前受审的经过，也没有说明他被拘留了多久（《使徒行传》24:27）。" ], "debate": "非斯都何时到任，取决于腓力斯何时被召回，学者的定年从公元54年到61年不等。较早的定年依据优西比乌的《年代记》——其亚美尼亚文本把召回放在革老丢在位的最后一年，耶柔米的版本则放在尼禄在位第二年——也依据约瑟夫斯的一句话：公元55年被免职的帕拉斯仍庇护着腓力斯（《犹太古史》20.182；塔西佗《编年史》13.14）。许雷尔回应说，《年代记》的年份常常是随意的；约瑟夫斯把腓力斯几乎所有的作为都放在尼禄治下；而且帕拉斯在55年底之前已洗脱一项指控（《编年史》13.23）。保罗称赞腓力斯多年担任这一民族的审判者（《使徒行传》24:10），也暗示他任期很长。拉姆齐根据《使徒行传》27:9所说已经过去的禁食节期来为这次航行定年；这个节期在59年是10月5日。如果第5年的钱币属于非斯都，那么他在公元59年已经在任，这不利于60年或61年之说；但这种读法所依据的，是一枚没有写出总督名字的钱币，以及一种假定的铸币模式。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "腓力斯较早被召回（公元54至55年）", "statement": "据许雷尔（1890）记述，凯尔纳把腓力斯被召回定在54年11月，V. 韦伯则定在55年夏天，依据是优西比乌的《年代记》以及帕拉斯对尼禄的影响力（《犹太古史》20.182）。许雷尔回应说，约瑟夫斯把腓力斯几乎所有的作为都放在尼禄治下，而且帕拉斯在55年底之前已被宣判无罪（塔西佗《编年史》13.23）。按这种较早的看法，第5年的钱币会落在任期中段。" }, { "label": "公元59年到任（拉姆齐）", "statement": "拉姆齐根据历法论证而非钱币论证，把前往罗马的航行定在59年秋天：《使徒行传》27:9所说已经过去的禁食节期，在59年是10月5日。他的年表索引把保罗在巴勒斯坦被囚的时间定为57年6月至59年7月，因此按他的推算，非斯都在59年到任。这与把第5年的钱币归于非斯都、视之为他上任头几个月所铸的看法相合。" }, { "label": "传统日期（公元60年）", "statement": "许雷尔在1890年考察的大多数研究者，都把腓力斯被召回定在60年；麦吉弗特（1890）沿用维泽勒之说，把59至61年定为非斯都就任的最宽范围。格雷-福（2016）仍把60年夏天视为传统日期。按这种看法，第5年的钱币是在腓力斯任内发行的，正如马登在1881年所列；而按他的列表，并无已知的非斯都钱币。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-festus-coins" }, { "id": "aretas-damascus", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": -9, "dateTo": 40, "corpusReferences": [ "RPC I 4781-4806 (civic coinage of Damascus, 37/36 BC to AD 65/6)", "RPC I 4800-4802A (Damascus under Tiberius, year 345 = AD 33/4, the last dated issue before the gap)", "RPC I 4803-4806 (Damascus under Nero, year 377 = AD 65/6)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "2 Corinthians 11:32-33", "Acts 9:23-25", "Acts 9:26", "Galatians 1:17-18", "Galatians 1:21" ], "personIds": [ "person.aretas", "person.paul", "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.damascus", "place.nabatea", "place.arabia", "place.syria" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.109-115 (Whiston 18.5.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "So Herod wrote about these affairs to Tiberius, who being very angry at the attempt made by Aretas, wrote to Vitellius to make war upon him, and either to take him alive, and bring him to him in bonds, or to kill him, and send him his head.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.120-129 (Whiston 18.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But when on the fourth day letters came to him, which informed him of the death of Tiberius, he obliged the multitude to take an oath of fidelity to Caius; he also recalled his army, and made them every one go home, and take their winter quarters there", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 16.293-299 (Whiston 16.9.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=16:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "who indeed was angry that Aretas had not sent to him first before he took the kingdom", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 16.351-355 (Whiston 16.10.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=16:whiston%20chapter=10:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "so he admitted Aretas's ambassadors; and after he had just reproved him for his rashness, in not tarrying till he received the kingdom from him, he accepted of his presents, and confirmed him in his government.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 14.117 (Whiston 14.7.2), quoting Strabo on the Jews of Egypt", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=14:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is also an ethnarch allowed them, who governs the nation, and distributes justice to them, and takes care of their contracts, and of the laws to them belonging, as if he were the ruler of a free republic.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.93 (Whiston 2.6.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he gave the one half of Herod's kingdom to Archelaus, by the name of Ethnarch, and promised to make him king also afterward, if he rendered himself worthy of that dignity.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text of the 1895 Beardsley edition)", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 13.392 (Whiston 13.15.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=13:whiston%20chapter=15:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "reigned over Celesyria, being called to the government by those that held Damascus, by reason of the hatred they bare to Ptolemy Menneus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924", "work": "Roman History, Book 59", "locator": "59.12.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he granted to Sohaemus the land of the Ituraean Arabians, to Cotys Lesser Armenia", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "year": "1790 (London: Religious Tract Society printing, 1852)", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "locator": "ch. IV (Second Epistle to the Corinthians), No. II", "url": "https://archive.org/download/horaepaulinaeort00pale_0/horaepaulinaeort00pale_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The account in the Epistle of St. Paul’s escape from Damascus, though agreeing in the main fact with the account of the same transaction in the Acts, is related with such difference of circumstance, as renders it utterly improbable that one should be derived from the other.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Aretas IV Philopatris", "locator": "Q302986", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q302986.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "author": "Pleiades", "work": "Damascus", "locator": "Pleiades 678106", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/678106/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Rainer Riesner", "work": "\"Pauline Chronology,\" in Stephen Westerholm (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Paul", "year": "2011", "view": "Neither literary nor numismatic evidence establishes that Gaius handed Damascus to Aretas or that the Nabataeans seized it. Aretas's official was probably the overseer of the Nabataean quarter of Damascus, as the Jewish ethnarch was at Alexandria. The only firm point is that the flight came before Aretas IV died in AD 40. Riesner dates Paul's call to 31/32 and his first Jerusalem visit to 33/34." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I, vol. II, Appendix II (English translation by John Macpherson)", "year": "1890", "view": "Takes 2 Corinthians 11:32 to show that Damascus then belonged to Aretas, probably restored to him by Gaius, noting that no Damascus coins with the emperor's image are known from Gaius and Claudius. Judges a forcible seizure very improbable. Reports el-Hegr inscriptions and coins of Aretas IV reaching his 48th year." }, { "author": "Benjamin W. Bacon", "work": "A Criticism of the New Chronology of Paul, II (The Expositor, 5th series, vol. 10)", "year": "1899", "view": "Argues that Aretas was probably not in control of Damascus before late AD 38. Reports Holtzmann's view that Aretas's official was only the representative of Arabian interests in the city, and doubts that such a consul-like appointee could guard a Roman-held city to stop a Roman citizen leaving. Inclines to Weizsäcker's view that the escape belongs c. AD 39, after Paul's first Jerusalem visit." }, { "author": "Douglas A. Campbell", "work": "\"An Anchor for Pauline Chronology: Paul's Flight from 'the Ethnarch of King Aretas' (2 Corinthians 11:32-33),\" Journal of Biblical Literature 121", "year": "2002", "view": "Treats the flight from Aretas's official as a fixed point on which to build a Pauline chronology from the letters, and dates it narrowly in the later 30s." }, { "author": "Laurence L. Welborn", "work": "\"The Runaway Paul,\" Harvard Theological Review 92", "year": "1999", "view": "Calls the episode important for chronology because Aretas is the only political figure named in an authentic letter of Paul, and notes that Acts 9:23-25 parallels it in partly overlapping wording, which is unusual for Acts." }, { "author": "Laurence L. Welborn", "work": "\"Primum tirocinium Pauli (2 Cor 11,32-33),\" Biblische Zeitschrift 43", "year": "1999", "view": "As Riesner (2011) reports it, argues that Gaius (Caligula) handed Damascus over to Aretas IV in 37-39." }, { "author": "Martin Hengel and Anna Maria Schwemer", "work": "Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years", "year": "1997", "view": "As cited by Riesner, they hold that the literary sources do not establish Nabataean rule of Damascus, and that Paul's early activity in the Nabataean kingdom may explain Aretas's hostility." }, { "author": "Zeyad Al-Salameen", "work": "\"A new Ancient North Arabian inscription with a reference to the Nabataean king Aretas,\" Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 22", "year": "2011", "view": "Publishes an inscription from al-Hussayniah, north of Ma'an, dated to the year a king Aretas died. He takes this most likely to be Aretas IV's death in AD 40." }, { "author": "Andrew Burnett, Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripollès", "work": "Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. I: From the Death of Caesar to Vitellius (44 BC-AD 69)", "year": "1992 (online edition 2019)", "view": "Catalogues Damascus's civic coinage as RPC I 4781-4806 with 4802A. Dated issues under Tiberius end with year 345 (AD 33/4); the next secure issues are Nero's, of year 377 (AD 65/6), and none of Gaius or Claudius are listed." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q302986", "label": "Aretas IV Philopatris" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3766", "label": "Damascus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678106", "label": "Damascus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q11029653", "label": "Nabataean kingdom" } ], "title": "国王亚里达四世与保罗逃离大马士革", "summary": "约瑟夫斯证实了亚里达四世的存在；在名为亚里达的诸王中，只有他的在位期与保罗的生平相合，因此他就是《哥林多后书》11:32所提到的那位王。有纪年的碑文和钱币把他的在位期定为约公元前9年至公元40年，因此保罗坐筐子逃离大马士革，是在约公元40年之前。至于亚里达当时是否控制大马士革，尚未得到证实；相关论证取决于该城铸币的一段空缺，以及如何理解亚里达手下官员的头衔——约瑟夫斯用这个词既指一方领土的统治者，也指一个群体的首领。", "dating": "亚里达四世在位约公元前9年至公元40年。保罗逃走发生在亚里达去世之前，并在写于公元五十年代中期的《哥林多后书》中被追述。", "currentLocation": "文本传统（约瑟夫斯《犹太古史》与《犹太战记》；卡西乌斯·狄奥）。大马士革城市钱币分藏于多家博物馆和私人收藏，并收录于RPC。", "establishes": [ "亚里达四世是在新约以外有记载的纳巴泰国王。约瑟夫斯记载，他在奥博达斯去世时掌权，奥古斯都只是勉强承认了他。约瑟夫斯也记载了他击败希律·安提帕，以及维特里乌斯在得知提比略于公元37年去世的消息后，放弃了讨伐亚里达的进军。", "他的在位期一般推算为约公元前9年至公元40年，不过登基年份并不确定。许雷尔（1890）记述了黑格拉（el-Hegr）出土、纪年为他在位第48年的碑文和钱币；萨拉明（2011）发表了一件碑文，其纪年是某位名叫亚里达的国王去世之年，所指最可能是公元40年去世的亚里达四世。", "保罗说，亚里达王手下的官员把守大马士革，要捉拿他；因此这次逃走（《哥林多后书》11:32–33；参《使徒行传》9:23–25）发生在约公元40年之前。如果逃走发生在保罗第一次访问耶路撒冷之前（《使徒行传》9:23–26；《加拉太书》1:17–18），那么他归信的时间不晚于约公元37年。", "RPC I收录的大马士革城市钱币中，提比略治下有纪年者直到第345年（公元33/4年）。下一批确定的发行是在尼禄治下（第377年，公元65/6年）；目录中没有盖乌斯或革老丢时期的大马士革钱币。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这不能表明亚里达统治过大马士革。没有任何碑文、钱币或非基督教文献这样说。狄奥列出盖乌斯在公元38年的封赐，提到阿拉伯的领土，却没有提到亚里达或大马士革（59.12.2）。", "铸币空缺不能证明统治者发生了更替。大马士革只是间歇地铸币：RPC I在公元前4/3年至公元13/14年之间就没有任何有纪年的发行。这段空缺只是默证。", "这既不能确定逃走的年份，也不能使《使徒行传》和《哥林多后书》成为完全独立的见证。学者主张的年份从三十年代初到公元39/40年不等，而且两段记载有部分措辞相同。", "《使徒行传》和保罗所说的追捕者不同：在《使徒行传》中是犹太人在城门守候（《使徒行传》9:23–24），保罗却说是亚里达手下的官员（《哥林多后书》11:32）。任何调和之说，例如两方互相配合，都是推论。" ], "debate": "悬而未决的问题是：亚里达在大马士革的这位官员究竟是什么身份。许雷尔（1890）把保罗的话理解为大马士革当时属于亚里达，很可能是盖乌斯归还给他的，并举出该城铸币的空缺为证；据里斯纳（2011）记述，韦尔伯恩主张盖乌斯在37至39年间移交了这座城。培根（1899）认为，任何这类控制都不会早于38年末。里斯纳引用亨格尔和施韦默等人的研究，认为封赐和夺取都不能成立。据培根（1899）记述，霍尔茨曼把这位官员理解为阿拉伯在大马士革的利益代表；里斯纳则把他理解为该城纳巴泰人聚居区的管理者，就像约瑟夫斯引用斯特拉波时称为“民族长”（ethnarch）的亚历山太犹太人首领一样（《犹太古史》14.117）。坎贝尔把这次逃走视为保罗年表的一个定点。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "纳巴泰统治该城，约公元37至40年", "statement": "亚里达通过他的官员短暂统治过大马士革，这或许出于提比略死后盖乌斯的封赐。占据大马士革的人曾经请一位更早的同名国王来统治柯里叙利亚（《犹太古史》13.392），而约瑟夫斯也把同一个头衔用于统治大希律半个王国的亚基老（《犹太战记》2.93）。这样一来，铸币空缺就说得通了，逃走落在约公元37至40年，再结合《加拉太书》1:18，保罗归信的时间就移到三十年代中期。" }, { "label": "官员是群体首领或王室代理人", "statement": "大马士革仍是罗马叙利亚行省的城市。亚里达手下的官员，要么是当地纳巴泰人群体的首领（里斯纳），要么是代表国王利益的代理人（据培根所述的霍尔茨曼之说）。无论哪种情况，他都可以在不统治这座城的情况下监视保罗，因此逃走可以落在三十年代较早的时候。培根（1899）怀疑，这样一位受委派的人能否把守一座由罗马人控制的城市，以阻止某人离开。" }, { "label": "范围狭窄的锚定日期", "statement": "坎贝尔把逃离亚里达手下官员一事，作为一套以书信为基础的年表的锚点，并把它精确地定在三十年代后期。里斯纳（2011）反驳说，纳巴泰对大马士革的统治权无法确立，因此唯一确定的一点是：这次逃走发生在亚里达于公元40年去世之前。" }, { "label": "逃走时间晚于《使徒行传》的安排", "statement": "魏茨泽克把逃走放在约公元39年保罗后来一次停留大马士革期间，即他第一次访问耶路撒冷（《使徒行传》9:26）之后、在叙利亚和基利家工作的时期（《加拉太书》1:21）；培根（1899）记述了这一看法，并试探性地采纳了它。按这种看法，《使徒行传》9章把这段经过放错了位置。" }, { "label": "共同传统还是文学依存", "statement": "佩利（1790）把两段记载并列：一段是国王的官员把守城池，另一段是犹太人在城门守候；他判断两者在情节上差异太大，不可能一方出自另一方。韦尔伯恩指出，两者在措辞上部分一致，这在《使徒行传》与书信之间并不常见。《使徒行传》用的是保罗的书信还是共同的传统，仍无定论。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-aretas-damascus" }, { "id": "aratus-epimenides-menander", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": -343, "dateTo": -274, "corpusReferences": [ "Aratus, Phaenomena 5 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0653.tlg001)", "Menander, Thais fr. 218 Kock", "Euripides fr. 1013 Nauck (cross-reference given by Allinson 1921)", "Callimachus, Hymn 1 (To Zeus) 8", "Diogenes Laertius 1.109-112 (Epimenides)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:28", "Acts 17:22-31", "1 Corinthians 15:33", "Titus 1:12-13", "Acts 22:3" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.athens", "place.areopagus", "place.crete", "place.corinth", "place.tarsus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "Aratus", "work": "Phaenomena (English translation, Loeb Classical Library)", "translator": "G. R. Mair", "year": "1921", "locator": "Phaen. 4-6 (English translation)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "always we all have need of Zeus. For we are also his offspring; and he in his kindness unto men giveth favourable signs and wakeneth the people to work", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "Aratus", "work": "Phaenomena (Greek text, ed. G. R. Mair)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Phaen. 5", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0483", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "τοῦ γάρ καὶ γένος εἰμέν", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "G. R. Mair", "work": "Introduction to Aratus, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Introduction to Aratus, p. 360 (birthplace)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Aratus of Soli in Cilicia—as distinct from Soli in Cyprus—was the son of Athenodorus and Letophila", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "aratus-mair", "author": "G. R. Mair", "work": "Introduction to Aratus, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "locator": "Introduction to Aratus, p. 363 (date of the Phaenomena)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/callimachuslycop0000wmai/callimachuslycop0000wmai_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This must have been between 276-274, because in the latter year this literary circle was broken up by the invasion of Pyrrhus", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.14 (Epimenides)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "others, Epimenides the Cretan, whom Paul knew as a Greek prophet, whom he mentions in the Epistle to Titus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.14 (Greek poems; 1 Corinthians line)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "is not ashamed, when discoursing for the edification of some and the shaming of others, to make use of Greek poems. Accordingly to the Corinthians (for this is not the only instance), while discoursing on the resurrection of the dead, he makes use of a tragic Iambic line", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.19 (Aratus)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Whence it is evident that the apostle, by availing himself of poetical examples from the Phenomena of Aratus, approves of what had been well spoken by the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (date of Epimenides' visit to Athens)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he came in the 46th Olympiad", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.111 (works ascribed to Epimenides)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote a poem On the Birth of the Curetes and Corybantes and a Theogony", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Francis G. Allinson", "work": "Menander: The Principal Fragments (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "view": "Prints the line of 1 Corinthians 15:33, in its elided form, as Menander, Thais fr. 218 Kock, and cross-references Euripides fr. 1013 Nauck." }, { "author": "A. W. Mair", "work": "Callimachus: Hymns, in Callimachus and Lycophron; Aratus (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1921", "view": "Prints Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus, whose line 8 opens with the same three words as Titus 1:12, and annotates the saying as proverbial and attributed to Epimenides." }, { "author": "J. Rendel Harris", "work": "The Cretans Always Liars (The Expositor, 7th series, vol. 2)", "year": "1906", "view": "Argues from a passage in the Syriac Gannat Busame, which he took to come from Theodore of Mopsuestia, that the first clause of Acts 17:28 also derives from Epimenides." }, { "author": "Martin Dibelius", "work": "Paulus auf dem Areopag", "year": "1939", "view": "Reads the Areopagus speech as a Lukan literary composition in a Hellenistic philosophical idiom, not as a record of Paul's own words." }, { "author": "Bertil Gärtner", "work": "The Areopagus Speech and Natural Revelation", "year": "1955", "view": "Argues against Dibelius that the speech's thought is rooted in Old Testament and Jewish tradition, with the Greek citations used in its service." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "Paul in Athens: The Popular Religious Context of Acts 17 (WUNT 341)", "year": "2014", "view": "Argues that popular second-century traditions about Epimenides make sense of the Athens episode, including the unknown-god altar and the first clause of Acts 17:28, and that scholars have overlooked them in favour of the philosophers named in the chapter." }, { "author": "Erkki Koskenniemi", "work": "The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth (Filología Neotestamentaria 24)", "year": "2011", "view": "Argues that the Cretan-liar proverb came first, was turned into a logical paradox, and was attached to Epimenides only later and ahistorically, so the verse in Titus does not prove that its writer knew classical literature well." }, { "author": "John Granger Cook", "work": "Titus 1,12: Epimenides, Ancient Christian Scholars, Zeus's Death, and the Cretan Paradox (Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 25)", "year": "2021", "view": "Reads Titus 1:12 in its history-of-religions context rather than as a liar's paradox." }, { "author": "I. Howard Marshall (with Philip H. Towner)", "work": "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (ICC)", "year": "1999", "view": "Holds that a Pauline associate wrote the Pastorals under Paul's name without deceptive intent ('allonymity'), rather than Paul himself." }, { "author": "William D. Mounce", "work": "Pastoral Epistles (Word Biblical Commentary 46)", "year": "2000", "view": "Defends Pauline authorship of the Pastorals and explains their stylistic differences partly by an amanuensis." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q180671", "label": "Aratus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q42194191", "label": "Phaenomena (poem by Aratus)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319406", "label": "Epimenides of Crete" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q118992", "label": "Menander" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q192417", "label": "Callimachus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1992415", "label": "Stromata (Clement of Alexandria)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q4789055", "label": "Areopagus sermon" } ], "title": "《使徒行传》与保罗书信所引的希腊诗人：阿拉图斯、米南德与“埃庇米尼得斯”", "summary": "《使徒行传》和保罗书信中有三行文字重现了希腊诗句。《使徒行传》17:28与阿拉图斯《天象》（公元前三世纪）第5行的前半行相合。《哥林多前书》15:33除了一个未省音的元音外，与一行短长格三音步诗相合；这行诗被编为米南德之作，出自他已失传的喜剧《泰伊丝》。《提多书》1:12是一行六音步诗，亚历山太的革利免把它归于克里特预言家埃庇米尼得斯。这些诗句显示了一种希腊文学视野，却不能证明保罗读过这些诗人的作品，也不能证明雅典的讲辞是逐字记录。", "dating": "诗作：第欧根尼·拉尔修把埃庇米尼得斯放在第46个奥林匹亚纪（公元前596至593年），这是传说性的年代，而且他没有任何作品完整传世；米南德，公元前343/42至292/91年（阿林森）；阿拉图斯《天象》，约公元前276至274年（梅尔的推断）；卡利马科斯《宙斯颂》，公元前三世纪。所引最早的基督教归属说法：亚历山太的革利免，《杂记》（约公元200年）。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "《使徒行传》17:28归于希腊诗人的那句话，与阿拉图斯《天象》第5行的前半行相合；希腊文原文只在动词形式上有差别（阿拉图斯用的是史诗体的εἰμέν）。阿拉图斯来自基利家的索利；按梅尔1921年的定年，他约在公元前276至274年写成这首诗。", "《哥林多前书》15:33除一个未省音的元音外，与阿林森（1921）编为米南德《泰伊丝》fr. 218 Kock的一行短长格三音步诗相合。这部剧作已经失传，因此这一归属依据的是古代的证言，而非留存的文本。亚历山太的革利免早已称这行诗为借来的“悲剧短长格诗行”。", "《提多书》1:12把一行六音步诗作为一位克里特先知的话来引用。这行诗的头三个词也是卡利马科斯《宙斯颂》（公元前三世纪）第8行的开头；梅尔1921年的洛布版注释说，这是一句归于埃庇米尼得斯的谚语。革利免认定《提多书》中的这位先知就是埃庇米尼得斯（《杂记》1.14）。", "亚历山太的革利免在《杂记》1.14和1.19中引用了全部三行诗句。他说保罗不以使用希腊诗作为耻，并根据对阿拉图斯的引用论证说，保罗认可希腊人说得好的话。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "不能证明保罗亲自读过阿拉图斯、米南德或埃庇米尼得斯的作品。每一行都简短而便于引用；《哥林多前书》中的那一行，革利免称之为“悲剧的”，阿林森却把它印在米南德的残篇之中，并交叉参照欧里庇得斯。这符合它作为格言流传的情形。", "不能证明关于克里特人的那行诗是埃庇米尼得斯写的。他没有任何作品完整传世，而这里所引最早的归属说法（革利免，约公元200年），比第欧根尼·拉尔修给他的年代晚了约八个世纪。", "不能说明《提多书》由谁写成，也不能说明《使徒行传》17章在多大程度上重现了保罗在雅典的原话。这些引文既与保罗本人写作相容，也与路加创作这篇讲辞相容，或与后来一位承袭保罗传统的作者相容。" ], "debate": "有五个问题仍未解决。第一，路加是用希腊化时代的语汇写成亚略．巴古讲辞的（迪贝利乌斯），还是讲辞中的希腊文引文服务于一种圣经神学（盖特纳）？第二，《使徒行传》17:28的第一个分句是否也取材于埃庇米尼得斯？哈里斯根据一部他认为保存了摩普绥提亚的狄奥多若之说的叙利亚文注释如此主张，罗思柴尔德则根据民间流传的埃庇米尼得斯传统如此主张。第三，关于克里特人的那行诗是埃庇米尼得斯写的，还是他的名字后来才被加在一句已成为逻辑悖论的谚语上（科斯肯涅米）？库克则在宗教史背景中解读这行诗，而不把它当作悖论。第四，《哥林多前书》中的那一行出自米南德、某位悲剧作家，还是属于通用的格言？第五，《提多书》是保罗本人（芒斯）还是他的一位同工（马歇尔）写的？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "保罗本人的引用", "statement": "保罗是来自大数、说希腊话的犹太人（《使徒行传》22:3），他凭着在学校里获得的对希腊诗人的了解，选用适合听众的诗句。革利免就是这样理解这些诗句的（《杂记》1.14；1.19）；至于《提多书》，芒斯为保罗的作者身份辩护。" }, { "label": "作为格言流传", "statement": "这些诗句是常见的格言，因此引用它们显示的是对希腊格言传统的熟悉，而非对诗人作品的研读。《哥林多前书》那行诗的出处不确定——是米南德的喜剧，还是如革利免所说的“悲剧的”所暗示的某部悲剧——也指向这一点。" }, { "label": "路加在雅典讲辞中的创作", "statement": "对阿拉图斯的引用，属于路加对一篇希腊化风格讲辞的文学塑造（迪贝利乌斯）。按这种看法，它显示的是《使徒行传》作者的教育背景，未必是保罗的。" }, { "label": "埃庇米尼得斯是后来的归属", "statement": "关于克里特人的那行六音步诗，可能原是无名氏的诗句，在成为谚语和逻辑谜题之后才被归于埃庇米尼得斯（科斯肯涅米）。卡利马科斯用了它的开头几个词，只能表明这半行诗到公元前三世纪已经流行。" }, { "label": "保罗身后写成的《提多书》", "statement": "如果《提多书》是保罗的一位同工在他死后写成的（马歇尔所说的“异名写作”［allonymity］），那么书中的引文显示的是保罗圈子的文学视野，而不是保罗本人的。" }, { "label": "出自欧里庇得斯或通用格言，而非米南德", "statement": "革利免称《哥林多前书》的那行诗为“悲剧的”，阿林森则交叉参照欧里庇得斯fr. 1013 Nauck。这行诗可能被不止一位诗人使用过，也可能在米南德之前就已是谚语。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-aratus-epimenides-menander" }, { "id": "josephus-agrippa-death", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 93, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae 19.343-350 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001)", "Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 2.218-219 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 12:19-23", "Acts 12:1-4", "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 12:24-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.barnabas", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.judea", "place.tyre", "place.sidon" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.343 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Agrippa had reigned three years over all Judea, he came to the city Cesarea, which was formerly called Strato's Tower; and there he exhibited shows in honor of Caesar", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.344 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the second day of which shows he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a contexture truly wonderful, and came into the theater early in the morning", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.345 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and another from another, (though not for his good,) that he was a god", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.346 (Whiston 19.8.2; no rebuke and the owl)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Upon this the king did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery. But as he presently afterward looked up, he saw an owl", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.346 (Whiston 19.8.2; the owl as messenger)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "immediately understood that this bird was the messenger of ill tidings, as it had once been the messenger of good tidings to him", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.347 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I, whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this life; while Providence thus reproves the lying words you just now said to me", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 19.350 (Whiston 19.8.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when he had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly for five days, he departed this life, being in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and in the seventh year of his reign", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 18.200 (owl omen, 18.195-202; Whiston 18.6.7)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=7", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But do thou remember, when thou seest this bird again, that thou wilt then live but five days longer.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 17.168-169 (Whiston 17.6.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=17:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But now Herod's distemper greatly increased upon him after a severe manner, and this by God's judgment upon him for his sins", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.101 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under these procurators that great famine happened in Judea, in which queen Helena bought corn in Egypt at a great expense, and distributed it to those that were in want", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.218-219 (Whiston 2.11.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=11:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but his death, which happened at Cesarea, before he had raised the walls to their due height, prevented him. He had then reigned three years, as he had governed his tetrarchies three other years.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.10.6", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But after a little, looking up, he saw an angel sitting above his head.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.10.10", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the time at least and the events show that the same person is meant, whether the change of name has been caused by the error of a copyist, or is due to the fact that he, like so many, bore two names", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Agrippa I", "locator": "Q298636", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q298636.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place: Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea", "locator": "678401", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/678401/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Max Krenkel", "work": "Josephus und Lucas: der schriftstellerische Einfluss des jüdischen Geschichtschreibers auf den christlichen", "year": "1894", "view": "Argues that Luke drew on Josephus in many passages, but for Acts 12 judges it doubtful: the Tyre and Sidon embassy and Blastus point to a source other than Josephus. He takes the acclamation at Caesarea and the sudden fatal illness as a shared historical core, and the owl, the angel and the worms as legend." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Lists Agrippa's death among the points where Luke-Acts agrees with Josephus and finds it easier to believe that Luke knew something of Josephus's work than that the agreements arose independently, while granting that this cannot be proved. On this view Luke-Acts postdates the Antiquities." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Argues that the author of Acts knew Josephus's later writings and that Acts is better dated to the second century, around 115." }, { "author": "O. Wesley Allen Jr.", "work": "The Death of Herod: The Narrative and Theological Function of Retribution in Luke-Acts (SBL Dissertation Series 158)", "year": "1997", "view": "Reads Acts 12:19b-24 against death-of-tyrant scenes in biblical and Greco-Roman literature. He treats the death as divine retribution for Herod's failure to give glory to God, a theme that does literary work across Luke-Acts." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Defends the historical reliability of Acts in general by comparing its details with literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence from its setting." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q298636", "label": "Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319242", "label": "Caesarea Maritima" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯论希律·亚基帕一世死于该撒利亚", "summary": "非基督教历史学家约瑟夫斯记载了《使徒行传》12:19–23所述之死的梗概。在《犹太古史》19.343–350（成书于公元93/94年）中，希律·亚基帕一世——即《使徒行传》12章的希律——在接受众人称他为神的欢呼后，突然剧痛发作，死于该撒利亚。一般认为，约瑟夫斯给出的在位年数把这次死亡定在公元44年。两段记载在场合、预兆和病症上各有不同；路加是否知道约瑟夫斯的著作，则有争议。", "dating": "《犹太古史》成书于图密善在位第十三年、约瑟夫斯五十六岁之年（《犹太古史》20.267），即公元93/94年。这次死亡通常定于公元44年，这是现代学者根据约瑟夫斯所记在位年数作出的重构；约瑟夫斯本人没有给出公历年份。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "并非基督徒的约瑟夫斯记载，希律·亚基帕一世在该撒利亚出席为纪念凯撒而举行的表演之后死去，腹痛五天后便丧命（《犹太古史》19.343–350）。他的《犹太战记》也把这次死亡放在该撒利亚（《犹太战记》2.219）。", "约瑟夫斯与《使徒行传》12:19–23有一个共同的核心序列：王身穿王袍在该撒利亚公开露面，被欢呼为神，没有推辞这份尊荣，随即突然患上致命的病。《使徒行传》说，主的使者因他不把荣耀归给神而击打他；约瑟夫斯则写希律·亚基帕一世把自己的疼痛理解为命运（惠斯顿译作“天意”）在驳斥那些奉承者。", "约瑟夫斯说，希律·亚基帕一世统治整个犹太已有三年，死于在位第七年（《犹太古史》19.343、350；《犹太战记》2.219）。一般认为，这些年数结合革老丢登基的时间，可以把这次死亡定在公元44年。这一年份是现代的重构；约瑟夫斯没有给出公历日期。", "《使徒行传》称为“希律”的王，在约瑟夫斯笔下用的是另一个名字，他就是希律·亚基帕一世。优西比乌早已论证，时间和事件都表明所指的是同一个人（《教会史》2.10.10）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能佐证只有路加提供的细节：推罗和西顿派来的使团、伯拉斯都、那篇演说、主的使者，以及被虫所咬而死。约瑟夫斯所写的则是帝国庆典上的表演、猫头鹰的预兆和五天的腹痛。", "它本身不能使两段记载成为彼此独立的见证。路加是否知道《犹太古史》，还是两位作者都取材于共同的传闻，仍有争议，因此两者的一致之处不应重复计算。", "它不能为巴拿巴和扫罗送赈济的那次访问定年（《使徒行传》11:27–30；12:25）。约瑟夫斯把犹太的大饥荒放在希律·亚基帕一世之后的几任总督任内（《犹太古史》20.101），因此《使徒行传》可能是按主题而非严格的先后次序，把这次死亡放进那段故事里。" ], "debate": "自十九世纪以来，学者就路加是否知道约瑟夫斯的著作争论不休。克伦克尔（1894）主张路加在许多段落中使用了约瑟夫斯，并提出一种设想：约瑟夫斯称猫头鹰为“使者”（希腊文angelos），路加便把它换成了天使。不过，就《使徒行传》12章而言，他判断推罗和西顿的使团以及伯拉斯都出自另一份资料来源，这使路加在此处使用约瑟夫斯之说变得可疑；他还把猫头鹰、天使和虫视为围绕一个共同历史核心而生的传说。梅森（2003）把希律·亚基帕一世之死列为若干一致之处之一，认为这些一致使人相信路加知道约瑟夫斯的著作比相信巧合更容易；佩尔沃（2006）则主张路加知道这些著作，并主张《使徒行传》写于二世纪。优西比乌引用这段文字时（《教会史》2.10.6），在约瑟夫斯的抄本作猫头鹰之处读作“天使”。两段叙事也都遵循描写不敬虔统治者的一种惯用模式，因此其中各有多少是报道、多少是文学加工，仍无定论。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加改编了约瑟夫斯", "statement": "《使徒行传》的作者知道《犹太古史》（成书于公元93/94年），并为基督徒读者改写了其中的记载，于是天使和虫取代了猫头鹰的预兆。梅森（2003）认为，相信路加知道约瑟夫斯的著作比相信巧合更容易；佩尔沃（2006）则为此论证。按这种看法，《使徒行传》写于九十年代中期之后。" }, { "label": "对一次公开死亡的独立报道", "statement": "路加和约瑟夫斯各自取材于关于该撒利亚一次众目睽睽之下的死亡的报道。两者在场合、若干细节和王的名字上都有差异，这不利于文学借用之说；克伦克尔虽主张路加在别处使用了约瑟夫斯，却认为此处的借用可疑。若是如此，两者在场景、欢呼和骤然患病上的一致，就是独立的佐证。" }, { "label": "惯例塑造了两段记载", "statement": "两位作者都借用一种常见的模式来讲述这次死亡：接受神圣尊荣的统治者遭到报应。约瑟夫斯本人就把大希律那场生了虫的致命疾病描述为神对他罪孽的审判（《犹太古史》17.168–169），《马加比二书》9章也以同样方式讲述安条克四世。两者共同的梗概，可能在同等程度上既得自这种惯例，也得自各自对事件的了解（参艾伦1997年关于《使徒行传》的研究）。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-agrippa-death" }, { "id": "athens-altar-unknown-god", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 150, "dateTo": 250, "corpusReferences": [ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.1.4; 5.14.8 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001)", "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 1.110 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001)", "Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.3 (CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 17:23", "Acts 17:16-34" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.athens", "place.areopagus" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "author": "Pausanias", "work": "Description of Greece", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones", "year": "1918", "locator": "1.1.4", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=1:section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here there is also a temple of Athena Sciras, and one of Zeus some distance away, and altars of the gods named Unknown, and of heroes, and of the children of Theseus and Phalerus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "pausanias-jones", "author": "Pausanias", "work": "Description of Greece", "translator": "W. H. S. Jones", "year": "1918", "locator": "5.14.8", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=5:chapter=14:section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "An account of the great altar I gave a little way back; it is called the altar of Olympian Zeus. By it is an altar of Unknown Gods", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (nameless altars)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=1:chapter=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "offer a sacrifice to the local divinity. And thus, it is said, the plague was stayed. Hence even to this day altars may be found in different parts of Attica with no name inscribed upon them, which are memorials of this atonement.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "diogenes-laertius-hicks", "author": "Diogenes Laertius", "work": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book I (Epimenides)", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "year": "1925", "locator": "1.110 (46th Olympiad)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=1:chapter=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he came in the 46th Olympiad", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "philostratus-conybeare", "author": "Philostratus", "work": "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", "translator": "F. C. Conybeare", "year": "1912", "locator": "6.3", "url": "https://archive.org/download/lifeofapollonius02philuoft/lifeofapollonius02philuoft_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a much greater proof of wisdom and sobriety to speak well of all the gods, especially at Athens, where altars are set up in honour even of unknown gods.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "1.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I find, no doubt, that altars have been lavished on unknown gods; that, however, is the idolatry of Athens. And on uncertain gods; but that, too, is only Roman superstition.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "clement-alexandria-stromata-anf", "author": "Clement of Alexandria", "work": "Stromata, Book I (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 2)", "translator": "William Wilson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Strom. 1.19 (the unknown God)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "intimates that, by the unknown God, God the Creator was in a roundabout way worshipped by the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Eduard Norden", "work": "Agnostos Theos: Untersuchungen zur Formengeschichte religiöser Rede", "year": "1913", "view": "Finds no attested dedication of an altar to a single unknown god; the pagan reports use the plural. He quotes Jerome's comment on Titus 1:12 about a plural inscription and assigns that fuller wording to a different, probably Roman, altar. He argues that the Areopagus speech depends on a literary account of Apollonius of Tyana at Athens, the change to the singular showing which text is dependent, and rejects Blass's plural conjecture and Usener's memory-slip view." }, { "author": "Adolf Deissmann", "work": "St. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History", "year": "1912", "view": "Holds that anonymous altars and altars to unknown gods were not altogether rare. He argues that a Pergamon altar, probably of the second century AD and restored by Hepding as a torchbearer's dedication to unknown gods, makes Pausanias and Philostratus credible, while granting that certainty is unattainable. In his view the altar Paul read was probably one Athenian's thank-offering to a single unknown god." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "Paul in Athens: The Popular Religious Context of Acts 17 (WUNT 341)", "year": "2014", "view": "Popular second-century traditions about the Cretan seer Epimenides, which Rothschild connects with the altar to an unknown god, explain the apparently ad hoc features of Acts 17 and reinforce Luke's theme of cult transfer." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q114315369", "label": "Unknown Gods" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3825645", "label": "Description of Greece" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1225196", "label": "Life of Apollonius of Tyana" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1282359", "label": "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319406", "label": "Epimenides of Crete" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q4789055", "label": "Areopagus sermon" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "580072", "label": "Phaleron" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "579885", "label": "Athenae" } ], "title": "雅典献给未识诸神的祭坛：保萨尼亚斯、斐洛斯特拉图斯与第欧根尼·拉尔修", "summary": "公元二至三世纪的非基督教作者记载，雅典及其港口法勒隆有献给未识诸神的祭坛，但用的总是复数；没有一位作者证实《使徒行传》17:23那种单数的献词。保萨尼亚斯列出法勒隆有献给“名为未识”的诸神的祭坛。斐洛斯特拉图斯写阿波罗尼乌斯提到雅典有这类祭坛，第欧根尼·拉尔修则讲到阿提卡各处有无名的祭坛。这一背景与《使徒行传》相合；确切的措辞仍未得到证实。", "dating": "公元二至三世纪（保萨尼亚斯，二世纪；斐洛斯特拉图斯和第欧根尼·拉尔修，三世纪）。基督教方面的评论来自亚历山太的革利免和特土良（约公元200年）；耶柔米后来关于一则复数碑文的记述（四世纪末），这里是通过诺登得知的。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "保萨尼亚斯（公元二世纪）记载，雅典的港口法勒隆有献给“名为未识”的诸神的祭坛，奥林匹亚的奥林匹斯宙斯祭坛旁边也有一座献给未识诸神的祭坛（1.1.4；5.14.8）。", "斐洛斯特拉图斯（公元三世纪）写道，提亚纳的阿波罗尼乌斯在一段以埃及为背景的对话中，劝人善言一切神明，“尤其是在雅典，那里甚至为未识的诸神设立祭坛”（《阿波罗尼乌斯传》6.3）。希腊文原文说的是未识的daimones，科尼比尔把它译为“诸神”。", "第欧根尼·拉尔修（1.110）保存了一则传说：埃庇米尼得斯在游荡的羊群所选定的地点献祭，止住了雅典的一场瘟疫；那次洁净仪式留下的无名祭坛，在阿提卡仍然可以找到。", "《使徒行传》17:23描述的祭坛属于非基督教作者有所记载的一类，只是他们用的都是复数。特土良在一段既未提及《使徒行传》也未提及保罗的文字中，是另一位复数的见证者：他把献给未识诸神的祭坛称为雅典的偶像崇拜（《驳马吉安》1.9）。亚历山太的革利免认为，保罗的意思是希腊人借着未识之神间接敬拜造物主神（《杂记》1.19）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些作者中没有一位描述过献给单一一位未识之神的祭坛。他们支持的是祭坛的类型，而不是《使徒行传》所记的那种确切的单数献词。", "他们无法确定保罗据说看见的那座祭坛位于何处，也无法辨认它。一个正确的地方细节，本身并不能证实亚略．巴古讲辞或这一场景的其余部分。", "第欧根尼所说的无名祭坛，并没有被称为献给未识诸神的祭坛；而他所讲的埃庇米尼得斯故事，是一则背景设在第46个奥林匹亚纪、即公元前六世纪初的传说。" ], "debate": "悬而未决的是单数问题。保萨尼亚斯、斐洛斯特拉图斯和特土良说的都是复数的未识诸神。诺登（1913）引用了耶柔米对《提多书》1:12的注释：碑文原是复数，列出亚细亚、欧洲和阿非利加的诸神，以及未识的和外邦的诸神，是保罗为了论证的需要把它改成了单数。诺登把那段较完整的措辞归于另一座祭坛，很可能在罗马；他并把《使徒行传》中的单数理解为对阿波罗尼乌斯传统中一个复数母题的改写。戴斯曼（1912）认为，一位敬拜者可能把一座祭坛献给单一一位未识之神；他举出帕加马的一座祭坛为例，但把它复原为献给未识诸神的献词，本身就不确定。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "改编的复数套语", "statement": "耶柔米认为，真正的碑文是复数，保罗以单数引用它，是因为他的论证需要一位神。按这种看法，《使徒行传》改编了一种真实的献词类型。引用耶柔米的诺登则判断，耶柔米那段较完整的措辞来自另一座祭坛，很可能在罗马，是一位更早的解经者错把它当成了雅典的那座。" }, { "label": "文学借用", "statement": "诺登主张，亚略．巴古讲辞依赖于一份记述提亚纳的阿波罗尼乌斯在雅典演讲的文学作品，而从复数改为单数，表明借用的一方是《使徒行传》。这一论证有赖于从斐洛斯特拉图斯三世纪的著作中重构一份更早的阿波罗尼乌斯记述。" }, { "label": "真实的单数献词", "statement": "戴斯曼判断，很可能有人因感激一位叫不出名字的神明，而把一座祭坛献给一位未识之神，正如帕加马一位得墨忒耳的祭司在公元二世纪显然曾向未识诸神献坛一样。按这种看法，《使徒行传》可能准确记录了措辞，不过没有任何单数的祭坛留存下来，而帕加马碑文的复原也不确定。" }, { "label": "以埃庇米尼得斯传统为框架", "statement": "罗思柴尔德主张，关于克里特预言家埃庇米尼得斯的民间传统——她把这些传统与《使徒行传》17:23的祭坛联系起来——可以解释雅典这段情节中看似临时拼凑的特征，并服务于路加关于崇拜转移的主题。" }, { "label": "文本讹误或记忆差错", "statement": "诺登记述，布拉斯推测《使徒行传》原本作复数，乌泽纳则认为保罗记错了碑文。诺登否定了布拉斯的推测，因为只有单数才符合讲辞的论证；他也不接受乌泽纳的看法，认为那等于放弃寻求任何解答。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-athens-altar-unknown-god" }, { "id": "josephus-felix-drusilla", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 122, "corpusReferences": [ "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Antiquities)", "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)", "urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 (Tacitus, Histories)", "urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi005 (Tacitus, Annals)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 23:24-24:27", "Acts 24:24", "Acts 24:27", "Acts 25:14" ], "personIds": [ "person.felix", "person.drusilla", "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.agrippa", "person.bernice", "person.festus", "person.paul", "person.claudius", "person.nero", "person.josephus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.judea", "place.jerusalem" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.137 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "SO Claudius sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to take care of the affairs of Judea", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.141-144 (Whiston 20.7.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Accordingly she acted ill, and because she was desirous to avoid her sister Bernice's envy, for she was very ill treated by her on account of her beauty, was prevailed upon to transgress the laws of her forefathers, and to marry Felix", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 19.354 (Whiston 19.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=19:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "three daughters; one of which, Bernice, was married to Herod, his father's brother, and was sixteen years old; the other two, Mariamne and Drusilla, were still virgins; the former was ten years old, and Drusilla six.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.160-166 (Whiston 20.8.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Felix also bore an ill-will to Jonathan, the high priest, because he frequently gave him admonitions about governing the Jewish affairs better than he did", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.247 (Whiston 2.12.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=12:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.252-253 (Whiston 2.13.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but over the rest of Judea he made Felix procurator. This Felix took Eleazar the arch-robber, and many that were with him, alive, when they had ravaged the country for twenty years together, and sent them to Rome", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "War 2.271 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=14:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "NOW it was that Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Histories", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Hist. 5.9", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0080:book=5:chapter=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Antonius Felix, indulging in every kind of barbarity and lust, exercised the power of a king in the spirit of a slave. He had married Drusilla, the granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and so was the grandson-in-law, as Claudius was the grandson, of Antony.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "19th-century translation (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Ann. 12.54", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=54", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Not equally moderate was his brother, surnamed Felix, who had for some time been governor of Judæa, and thought that he could do any evil act with impunity, backed up as he was by such power.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "The Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "19th-century translation (Perseus text: Random House reprint, 1942)", "locator": "Ann. 13.14", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "The Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "locator": "Claud. 28.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He was equally fond of Felix, giving him the command of cohorts and of troops of horse, as well as of the province of Judaea; and he became the husband of three queens.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "William Whiston", "work": "Translator's note to Antiquities 20.7.2", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)", "locator": "Note 1 to Ant. 20.142 (Whiston 20.7.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=7:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is probable that Tacitus may say true, when he informs us that this Felix (who had in all three wives, or queens, as Suetonius in Claudius, sect. 28, assures us) did once marry such a grandchild of Antonius and Cleopatra", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (CCEL text: 10th edition, 1907)", "locator": "Ch. 13 (The Voyage to Jerusalem), note 56", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/r/ramsay/paul_roman/cache/paul_roman.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The remarkable contradiction between Josephus (who makes Cumanus governor of Palestine 48-52, Felix being his successor in 52), and Tacitus (who makes Felix governor of Samaria [and probably of Judea], contemporary with Cumanus as governor of Galilee", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Lists the points where Acts agrees with independently known first-century people, offices and places, the Caesarea trial chapters among them, and argues that these show an author well informed about the period." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992 (2nd ed. 2003)", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's narrative, pointing to shared material such as Theudas, Judas the Galilean and the Egyptian prophet. He concedes that the case cannot be proved, and it bears on how independent Acts and Josephus are." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about AD 115 and argues that its author used Josephus's Antiquities among his sources." }, { "author": "Frederick E. Brenk and Filippo Canali De Rossi", "work": "\"The 'Notorious' Felix, Procurator of Judaea, and His Many Wives (Acts 23-24)\", Biblica 82", "year": "2001", "view": "Argue that the sources are confused about Felix's family name and wives, and that 'Antonius' and 'Claudius' may both be correct. They hold that the inscription used to fix his name and career has serious problems, that none of his wives may descend from Cleopatra VII (if one did, she was more likely a great-granddaughter), and that his 'notorious' reputation should be treated with caution." }, { "author": "Roman Deiksler", "work": "\"Żony Feliksa, prokuratora Judei\" (The Wives of Felix, Procurator of Judea), Res Historica 49", "year": "2020", "view": "Re-examines Felix's wives and, against common scholarly scepticism, argues that Tacitus was right to make Drusilla of Mauretania a granddaughter of Cleopatra VII. Treats Agrippa I's daughter as a second, separate wife." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q255778", "label": "Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5309410", "label": "Drusilla of Mauretania (Tacitus's Drusilla)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q298636", "label": "Agrippa I" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q319242", "label": "Caesarea Maritima" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯与塔西佗笔下的腓力斯和土西拉", "summary": "约瑟夫斯证实了《使徒行传》23至25章所预设的官员和家族关系。他记载帕拉斯的兄弟腓力斯在革老丢和尼禄治下任犹太总督，说希律·亚基帕一世的女儿土西拉离开丈夫，嫁给了腓力斯，又指出波求．非斯都是腓力斯的继任者。塔西佗和苏维托尼乌斯也证实了腓力斯担任过这一职位。《使徒行传》以外没有任何资料提到保罗受审的事；《使徒行传》是否独立于约瑟夫斯，也仍有争议。", "dating": "约瑟夫斯：《犹太战记》约成书于公元75至79年（通行定年）；《犹太古史》完成于公元93/94年（《犹太古史》20.267）。塔西佗和苏维托尼乌斯：公元二世纪初。所述事件：从希律·亚基帕一世去世（公元44年）到非斯都继任，继任的年份有争议。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "约瑟夫斯（《犹太古史》20.137；《犹太战记》2.247）和塔西佗（《历史》5.9；《编年史》12.54）的记载在细节上不尽相同，但都记录帕拉斯的兄弟腓力斯在革老丢在位时治理犹太。约瑟夫斯还说，尼禄确认他继续留任（《犹太战记》2.252）。《使徒行传》23:24–24:27把保罗在该撒利亚受审的场景安排在这位总督面前。", "约瑟夫斯说，土西拉是希律·亚基帕一世的一个女儿，父亲去世时她六岁（《犹太古史》19.354）。亚基帕二世把她嫁给埃美萨的阿齐祖斯，后者同意受割礼；腓力斯任总督期间，她离开阿齐祖斯，改嫁腓力斯，约瑟夫斯称此举违背祖传律法（《犹太古史》20.139–143）。《使徒行传》24:24同样把土西拉描述为腓力斯那位身为犹太人的妻子。", "约瑟夫斯记载，尼禄派波求．非斯都接替腓力斯（《犹太古史》20.182；《犹太战记》2.271只称非斯都），这正是《使徒行传》24:27所记的继任。他还说，该撒利亚的犹太人首领前往罗马控告腓力斯，而腓力斯凭借兄弟帕拉斯的影响力逃过了惩处。", "基督教以外的资料把腓力斯描绘得十分负面。约瑟夫斯说，他用诡计擒获盗匪以利亚撒，策划谋杀前任大祭司约拿单，并派兵对付那位埃及先知的追随者和在该撒利亚闹事的犹太人（《犹太古史》20.160–178；《犹太战记》2.253）。塔西佗指责他残暴而淫逸（《历史》5.9）。《使徒行传》中那位指望得钱的总督，与这种名声相符。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "《使徒行传》以外，没有资料提到保罗、他在腓力斯面前受审、他与腓力斯和土西拉的私下会面，或他被拘押的两年。这些吻合证实的是官员、他们的家族关系和背景，并不证实《使徒行传》所叙述的事件。", "这些资料没有确定确切的日期。腓力斯开始执政的时间（塔西佗说他曾与库马努斯同时在任，管辖撒玛利亚，并且到公元52年已任职“有一段时间”），以及非斯都接替他的年份，都有争议。", "塔西佗笔下的土西拉是安东尼和克娄巴特拉的孙女，并不是希律·亚基帕一世那位身为犹太人的女儿；因此在土西拉是谁这一点上，塔西佗并不能佐证《使徒行传》24:24。" ], "debate": "有三个问题仍无定论。年代：塔西佗说公元52年以前腓力斯管辖撒玛利亚，同时库马努斯掌管加利利，约瑟夫斯却说腓力斯是库马努斯的继任者；非斯都到任的年份也有争议。答案部分取决于：据约瑟夫斯说曾庇护腓力斯的帕拉斯，在约公元55年被尼禄免职之后（《编年史》13.14）是否仍保有那份影响力；部分取决于《使徒行传》24:27所说的两年，指的是保罗被拘押的时间，还是腓力斯的任期。妻子：塔西佗笔下的土西拉是安东尼和克娄巴特拉的后裔，而苏维托尼乌斯说腓力斯娶过三位王后。独立性：有些学者主张路加知道约瑟夫斯的《犹太古史》。如果是这样，这些吻合作为独立佐证的分量就会减轻。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行传》取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "Richard Pervo主张《使徒行传》的作者知道约瑟夫斯的著作，Steve Mason也持此看法，但较为保留；若是如此，这些吻合就不是独立的佐证。反对此处存在借用的理由是：土西拉的婚事只见于《犹太古史》（公元93/94年），而许多学者认为这部书晚于《使徒行传》；并且《使徒行传》没有任何约瑟夫斯特有的细节（阿齐祖斯；那位塞浦路斯术士——在Niese校订的希腊文本中名为Atomos，在Whiston的英译本中名为Simon）。" }, { "label": "在腓力斯的仕途和婚姻上采信塔西佗", "statement": "Ramsay记述，在腓力斯早期的职权问题上，Mommsen采信塔西佗而非约瑟夫斯。Roman Deiksler（2020）主张，塔西佗把腓力斯的一位妻子说成克娄巴特拉的后裔是正确的。这两种看法都不排除腓力斯也娶了希律·亚基帕一世的女儿，因为苏维托尼乌斯说他娶过三位王族妻子。这个问题关乎约瑟夫斯的精确程度，而不涉及《使徒行传》24:24。" }, { "label": "腓力斯的恶名或许被夸大", "statement": "Brenk和Canali De Rossi（2001）主张，对腓力斯“臭名昭著”的名声应持审慎态度。编者按：塔西佗写到皇室被释奴时毫不掩饰轻蔑，而约瑟夫斯是在解释犹太战争如何一步步爆发。因此，两人笔下都有带敌意的描绘，这本身并不能证实《使徒行传》中那位想要钱财的总督的形象。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-felix-drusilla" }, { "id": "lystra-inscription", "kind": "inscription", "dateFrom": 14, "dateTo": 100, "corpusReferences": [ "CIL III 6786", "MAMA VIII 5", "AE 1888, 89", "EDCS-27800574", "Sterrett, The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (1888), no. 242" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 14:6-21", "Acts 16:1-2", "2 Timothy 3:11" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.timothy" ], "placeIds": [ "place.lystra", "place.derbe", "place.iconium", "place.galatia" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "No. 242, p. 142", "url": "https://archive.org/details/papersofamerican03arch/page/142/mode/1up", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Divum Aug(ustum) Col(onia) Iul(ia) Fe-lix Gemina Lustra conse-cravit d(ecreto) d(ecurionum).", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "Itinerary entry for 10 July (Maï to Khatün Serai), p. 141", "url": "https://archive.org/download/papersofamerican03arch/page/n152_w500.jpg", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "sterrett-wolfe-expedition", "author": "J. R. Sitlington Sterrett", "work": "The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 3)", "year": "1888", "locator": "p. 15 (itinerary entry for 1 June, at Serpek)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/papersofamerican03arch/page/15/mode/1up", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The site was thought to be that of Derbe, as long as Lystra was supposed to be at Bin Bir Kalesi", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "edcs", "work": "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby", "locator": "EDCS-27800574 (CIL 03, 06786; MAMA 08, 00005; AE 1888, 00089; place: Hatunsaray / Katin Serai / Lystra)", "url": "https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/data/monument/278/27800574.json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "Ch. V, Note 2 ('Declension of Lystra'); p. 129 in the 1895 first edition", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.viii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Incidentally we notice that the name of the city is spelt Lustra, not Lystra (like Prymnessos), on coins and inscriptions. That is an indication of Latin tone, and of the desire to make the city name a Latin word.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades gazetteer of ancient places", "locator": "Place 648699 (Lystra/Col. Iulia Felix Gemina)", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/648699/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata", "locator": "Q535982 (Lystra)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q535982.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Historical Geography of Asia Minor", "year": "1890", "view": "Credits Sterrett's inscription with proving Leake's earlier identification of Lystra near Khatün Serai." }, { "author": "Barbara Levick", "work": "Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor", "year": "1967", "view": "Treats Lystra as one of the Augustan veteran colonies of southern Galatia and draws on its inscriptions and coins to reconstruct that colonial programme." }, { "author": "Stephen Mitchell", "work": "Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor", "year": "1993", "view": "Places Lystra within the Augustan colonisation and Roman organisation of southern Galatia and Lycaonia." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues that many incidental local details in Acts, including the Lycaonian setting of Acts 14, fit first-century conditions and support the book's historical value." }, { "author": "Cilliers Breytenbach", "work": "Paulus und Barnabas in der Provinz Galatien", "year": "1996", "view": "Reads Acts 13-14 against the epigraphy and geography of the Roman province of Galatia, including Lystra. Argues that the churches Paul addressed as Galatian lay in this southern region." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century. On this view, the author's knowledge of local conditions does not imply eyewitness or early composition." }, { "author": "H. Bahar, T. Çay, Ö. Koçak and F. Işcan", "work": "A Plan for Archaeological Excavation of Lystra (Zoldura Höyük), CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium", "year": "2005", "view": "Report surveys since 1994 that found material from the Chalcolithic to the Roman period on the Zoldura mound north of Hatunsaray. State that Sterrett's inscription is in the Konya Archaeological Museum." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "648699", "label": "Lystra/Col. Iulia Felix Gemina" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q535982", "label": "Lystra (historic settlement in Konya, Turkey)" }, { "scheme": "trismegistos", "id": "16230", "label": "TM Geo 16230 (Lystra), place id as cross-referenced by Pleiades; not a text id" } ], "title": "确定路司得位置的拉丁文献辞", "summary": "这座刻有拉丁文的基座，是把路司得——《使徒行传》14章和16章中的吕高尼城镇——定位在哈通萨赖附近佐尔德拉（Zoldera）土丘上的主要证据。它由殖民地“Iulia Felix Gemina Lustra”献给神化的奥古斯都，表明路司得在公元14年以后的某个时候是罗马殖民地。J. R. S. Sterrett于1885年7月抄录了这篇铭文。它没有提到保罗，也不能证实《使徒行传》所叙述在当地发生的任何事件。", "dating": "无法精确定年。由于奥古斯都被称为divus，它晚于公元14年；所查阅的目录记录都没有给出年代，dateTo 100只是惯用的上限。Sterrett于1885年7月抄录，1888年发表。", "currentLocation": "据报道藏于土耳其科尼亚考古博物馆（Bahar等，2005，引用MAMA VIII）；尚未查证到博物馆的藏品目录记录。", "establishes": [ "1885年7月，J. R. S. Sterrett在佐尔德拉土丘上抄录了一座大型四面基座，地点在Khatün Serai（今哈通萨赖）以北约十五分钟路程处。基座上刻有“Colonia Iulia Felix Gemina Lustra”所献的拉丁文献辞（Sterrett第242号；CIL III 6786）。", "这样规模的城市献辞，又是在土丘本身发现的，是把路司得定位于此的主要证据；该地位于科尼亚（古称以哥念）西南偏南的吕高尼平原。Ramsay在《The Historical Geography of Asia Minor》（1890）中认为，是Sterrett找到了证据，证明Leake先前的比定正确。", "献辞刻成时，路司得是罗马殖民地，其decurions（市议会）公开尊崇神化的奥古斯都。因此这篇铭文的年代晚于公元14年。", "这个位置与《使徒行传》相符：《使徒行传》把路司得和特庇同列为吕高尼的城市，并把它与邻近的以哥念联系在一起（《使徒行传》14:6、14:19–21；16:1–2）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "铭文没有提到任何一位基督徒。它不能证实那次医治、众人称巴拿巴和保罗为宙斯和汉密士，或保罗被石头打（《使徒行传》14:8–20）。", "它无法精确定年，既不能显示殖民地何时建立，也不能显示保罗到访时这座城镇是什么样子。", "《使徒行传》从未称路司得为殖民地，所以这块石碑提供的是背景，而不是证实《使徒行传》中的某项具体陈述。单凭地理正确，并不能说明作者是目击者，也不能说明《使徒行传》写于何时。" ], "debate": "1885年以前，人们把路司得定在别处；Sterrett提到，当时认为它在Bin Bir Kalesi。Ramsay（1890）认为，正确的比定出自Leake，证明则出自Sterrett；Pleiades地名辞典和各种铭文目录都采用这一比定。1994年以来的调查报告说，土丘上有从铜石并用时代到罗马时期的遗存（Bahar等，2005），不过原则上单独一块石头也可能被搬动过。悬而未决的是如何诠释这一点。有人把《使徒行传》对吕高尼背景的准确描述，视为消息灵通、记述较早的迹象。另一些人则指出，路司得存在了好几个世纪，准确的地方色彩并不能验证《使徒行传》所叙述的那段经历。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "较早的地点提议", "statement": "在Sterrett发现这件铭文以前，人们把路司得定在别处；Sterrett提到，当时认为它在Bin Bir Kalesi。现代地名辞典和铭文目录（Pleiades、EDCS）都采用佐尔德拉的比定；这一比定主要依据这件献辞及其出土地点，并有土丘上的调查发现作为佐证。" }, { "label": "把《使徒行传》视为晚出作品的读法", "statement": "Richard Pervo等人把《使徒行传》定在二世纪初，并把书中许多情节读作文学创作；因此，准确的地方色彩只说明作者熟悉这个地区，而不说明他是目击者。解释者也把宙斯和汉密士的场景，与奥维德笔下朱庇特和墨丘利造访弗吕家的故事（《变形记》第8卷）相比较；这种相似或被读作文学上的模仿，或被读作《使徒行传》中的群众也熟知的地方传说。" }, { "label": "历史可靠性的读法", "statement": "Ramsay、Hemer等人主张，《使徒行传》对吕高尼的地理和政治处理得很精确，表明记述者消息灵通，而且记述可能较早。他们把这个殖民地得到确认的位置视为累积论证的一部分。然而，这块石碑本身只与背景有关。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-lystra-inscription" }, { "id": "josephus-ananias", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Antiquities)", "urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 23:2-5", "Acts 24:1", "Acts 9:10-19", "Acts 22:12-16", "Acts 5:1-11" ], "personIds": [ "person.ananias-high-priest", "person.paul", "person.felix", "person.tertullus", "person.claudius", "person.agrippa", "person.josephus", "person.ananias" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.caesarea", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.103 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But now Herod, king of Chalcis, removed Joseph, the son of Camydus, from the high priesthood, and made Ananias, the son of Nebedeu, his successor.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.131 (Whiston 20.6.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "but still he sent away Ananias the high priest, and Ananus the commander [of the temple], in bonds to Rome, to give an account of what they had done to Claudius Caesar.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.162 (Whiston 20.8.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Felix also bore an ill-will to Jonathan, the high priest, because he frequently gave him admonitions about governing the Jewish affairs better than he did", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.179 (Whiston 20.8.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time king Agrippa gave the high priesthood to Ismael, who was the son of Fabi.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.205 (Whiston 20.9.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "had obtained the favor and esteem of the citizens in a signal manner; for he was a great hoarder up of money: he therefore cultivated the friendship of Albinus, and of the high priest [Jesus], by making them presents", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.206 (Whiston 20.9.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he also had servants who were very wicked, who joined themselves to the boldest sort of the people, and went to the thrashing-floors, and took away the tithes that belonged to the priests by violence, and did not refrain from beating such as would not give these tithes to them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "William Whiston", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews, translator's note to 20.9.2", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Whiston's note on Ant. 20.205 (Whiston 20.9.2 n. 1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This Ananias was not the son of Nebedeus, as I take it, but he who was called Annas or Ananus the elder", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.213 (Whiston 20.9.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But Ananias was too hard for the rest, by his riches, which enabled him to gain those that were most ready to receive.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.243 (Whiston 2.12.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=12:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "both Jonathan and Ananias, the high priests", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.426 (Whiston 2.17.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=17:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The others then set fire to the house of Ananias the high priest, and to the palaces of Agrippa and Bernice", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.441 (Whiston 2.17.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=17:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But on the next day the high priest was caught where he had concealed himself in an aqueduct; he was slain, together with Hezekiah his brother, by the robbers", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "James C. VanderKam", "work": "From Joshua to Caiaphas: High Priests after the Exile", "year": "2004", "view": "Gathers and assesses the surviving evidence for each high priest of the Second Temple period down to about AD 70, including Ananias son of Nedebaeus." }, { "author": "Martin Goodman", "work": "The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt against Rome, A.D. 66-70", "year": "1987", "view": "Argues that the Rome-backed ruling class of Judaea, including the high-priestly families, lacked popular legitimacy and that its rivalries helped bring on the revolt of AD 66." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992 (2nd ed. 2003)", "view": "Introduces Josephus for New Testament readers and argues that the author of Luke-Acts probably knew Josephus's writings, which bears on whether their agreements are independent." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century and argues that its author drew on Josephus." }, { "author": "F. F. Bruce", "work": "The Book of the Acts (New International Commentary on the New Testament, rev. ed.)", "year": "1988", "view": "Identifies the high priest of Acts 23:2 with Ananias son of Nedebaeus and uses Josephus's account of his greed and violent death as background to the scene." }, { "author": "Craig S. Keener", "work": "Acts: An Exegetical Commentary, vol. 3 (15:1-23:35)", "year": "2014", "view": "Sets Acts 23:1-5 against Josephus's evidence for Ananias and surveys the explanations proposed for Paul's statement that he did not know Ananias was high priest." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q485854", "label": "Ananias ben Nedebaios" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "678401", "label": "Stratonos Pyrgos/Caesarea" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯论尼德拜乌斯之子大祭司亚拿尼亚", "summary": "约瑟夫斯证实，有一位名叫亚拿尼亚、身为尼德拜乌斯之子的大祭司，约在公元47/48年获任命，此后一直富有而有权势，曾用礼物笼络总督阿尔比努斯，并在公元66年被叛乱者杀害。这与《使徒行传》中那位命人打保罗、又在腓力斯面前控告他的大祭司的名字和职位相符（《使徒行传》23:2–5；24:1）。约瑟夫斯从未提到保罗，也没有给出亚拿尼亚任期结束的时间。", "dating": "《犹太战记》约成书于公元75至79年（通行定年）；《犹太古史》完成于公元93/94年（《犹太古史》20.267）；所述事件约从公元47年延续到66年。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "约瑟夫斯提到一位大祭司，即尼德拜乌斯之子亚拿尼亚，约在公元47/48年由卡尔基斯的希律任命（《犹太古史》20.103）。约公元52年，叙利亚总督夸德拉图斯把他送到革老丢那里；据《犹太古史》记载，他是被捆绑着押送的（《犹太古史》20.131；《犹太战记》2.243）。《使徒行传》称约公元57年保罗受审时的大祭司为亚拿尼亚（《使徒行传》23:2；24:1）。", "约瑟夫斯描述亚拿尼亚富有且人脉广：他受市民敬重，是个“聚敛钱财的人”，用礼物笼络总督阿尔比努斯；他的仆人则强夺祭司的什一奉献，殴打不肯交出的人（《犹太古史》20.205–207、213）。其他大祭司也这样做（《犹太古史》20.207）。《使徒行传》简短描绘一位命人打囚犯的大祭司，与此相符。", "约瑟夫斯记载，公元66年，叛乱者焚烧了亚拿尼亚的房屋，随后把他和他的兄弟希西家一起杀死（《犹太战记》2.426、441）。因此，从四十年代后期直到起义爆发，一位叫这个名字的大祭司一直属于耶路撒冷的领导阶层。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "约瑟夫斯没有提到保罗、公议会的审问、命人打他的命令，或在腓力斯面前的案件。《使徒行传》23至24章的场景本身没有得到佐证。", "约瑟夫斯没有给出亚拿尼亚任期结束的时间。《使徒行传》称他在约公元57年是大祭司；约瑟夫斯既未证实，也未否定这一点，而且他也把这个头衔用于已经卸任的人（《犹太古史》20.162中的约拿单；《犹太古史》20.205中阿尔比努斯任内的亚拿尼亚本人）。", "《使徒行传》没有叙述亚拿尼亚在公元66年被杀。把《使徒行传》23:3中保罗的斥责读成一则应验了的预言，属于诠释，而不是历史证据。", "约瑟夫斯的证据只关乎这位大祭司，与大马士革的亚拿尼亚（《使徒行传》9:10–19；22:12–16）或撒非喇的丈夫（《使徒行传》5:1–11）无关。" ], "debate": "约瑟夫斯从未说明亚拿尼亚的任期何时结束。约拿单曾在公元36至37年任职，而约瑟夫斯叙述他在腓力斯任内遇害时，仍称他为“大祭司”（《犹太古史》20.162）；约瑟夫斯又在后文记载以实玛利获任命（《犹太古史》20.179）。因此，若只凭约瑟夫斯，亚拿尼亚在约公元57年仍然在任只是一种推论；《使徒行传》则明言如此。保罗说他不知道亚拿尼亚是大祭司（《使徒行传》23:5）。Albert Barnes在十九世纪为这节经文所写的注释，先列举了几种解释：反讽、为说话仓促而道歉、久别之后不熟悉情况，以及亚拿尼亚当时并未以大祭司的身份就座或穿着，最后倾向于认为当时这个职位出缺。认为路加知道约瑟夫斯的学者会问，两份记载的吻合是否彼此独立。约瑟夫斯带敌意的描绘，也反映出他自己的贵族利益和辩护意图。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "公元57年亚拿尼亚已不在任", "statement": "约瑟夫斯没有给出亚拿尼亚任期结束的时间。一些十九世纪的注释者，例如Albert Barnes在注释《使徒行传》23:5时，认为当时这个职位出缺，亚拿尼亚是出于礼遇而主持会议，这可以解释保罗的回答。约瑟夫斯的沉默并不证明当时有空缺；而且他在《犹太古史》20.162称为“大祭司”的约拿单，只在公元36至37年任职（《犹太古史》18.95、123）。" }, { "label": "路加取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "Richard Pervo主张《使徒行传》的作者知道约瑟夫斯的著作，Steve Mason也持此看法，但较为保留。若是如此，《使徒行传》可能是从约瑟夫斯那里得知亚拿尼亚的名字和职位，而非出于独立的认识。另一些人把《使徒行传》定在《犹太古史》（公元93/94年）之前，或认为这里看不出借用的迹象，因为《使徒行传》23章的审问在约瑟夫斯的著作中没有对应的记载。" }, { "label": "一段编写出来的场景", "statement": "一些批判学派的注释者把《使徒行传》23:1–10视为路加围绕自己的主题编写的场景，例如保罗对律法的尊重，以及法利赛人和撒都该人关于复活的争论。按照这种读法，名字和职位正确，说明路加了解那个时期，却不能证实审问确实如书中所述那样发生过。" }, { "label": "Whiston对《犹太古史》20.205的人物认定", "statement": "Whiston在他1737年译本的一条注释中，把《犹太古史》20.205–213那位富有的“大祭司亚拿尼亚”认作老亚那（Annas）。约瑟夫斯的原文在那里称他为亚拿尼亚（Ananias），Whiston自己的译文也是这样印的；而约瑟夫斯称呼亚那时通常用的形式是Ananus（亚拿努）。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-ananias" }, { "id": "josephus-festus", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)", "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 24:27-26:32", "Acts 24:10", "Acts 21:18", "Galatians 1:19" ], "personIds": [ "person.festus", "person.felix", "person.agrippa", "person.nero", "person.josephus", "person.paul", "person.james" ], "placeIds": [ "place.judea", "place.caesarea", "place.jerusalem", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.182 (Whiston 20.8.9)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=9", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix; and he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless Nero had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.185-188 (Whiston 20.8.10)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=10", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "So Festus sent forces, both horsemen and footmen, to fall upon those that had been seduced by a certain impostor, who promised them deliverance and freedom from the miseries they were under, if they would but follow him as far as the wilderness.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.189-196 (Whiston 20.8.11)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=11", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "At these doings both king Agrippa, and principally Festus the procurator, were much displeased; and Festus ordered them to pull the wall down again: but the Jews petitioned him to give them leave to send an embassage about this matter to Nero", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.197 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "AND now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.200 (Whiston 20.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=9:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the sanhedrim of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.271-272 (Whiston 2.14.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=14:whiston%20section=1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus succeeded Felix as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country. So he caught the greatest part of the robbers, and destroyed a great many of them. But then Albinus, who succeeded Festus, did not execute his office", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.300 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=6:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Jesus, the son of Ananus, a plebeian and a husbandman, who, four years before the war began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and prosperity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one to make tabernacles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 6.305 (Whiston 6.5.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=6:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And when Albinus (for he was then our procurator) asked him, Who he was? and whence he came? and why he uttered such words?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 13.14", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=14", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero, furious with those who abetted such arrogance in a woman, removed Pallas from the charge of the business with which he had been entrusted by Claudius", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 13.23", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=13:chapter=23", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the proved innocence of Pallas did not please men so much, as his arrogance offended them.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 14.65", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=14:chapter=65", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Nero was believed to have destroyed by poison two of his most powerful freedmen, Doryphorus, on the pretext of his having opposed the marriage with Poppæa, Pallas for still keeping his boundless wealth by a prolonged old age.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Festus was sent by Nero to be Felix's successor. Under him Paul, having made his defense, was sent bound to Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.23.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the emperor, when he learned of the death of Festus, sent Albinus to be procurator of Judea.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 468", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Valesius and Heinichen proceed on the erroneous assumption that Festus succeeded Felix in the second year of Nero", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.22", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.1, note 469", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The widest possible margin for his accession is from 59–61.", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Emil Schürer", "work": "A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Division I, vol. 2 (English translation of the second German edition)", "year": "1890", "view": "Dates Festus AD 60-62. Records the case for recalling Felix early in Nero's reign (Jerome's Chronicle; Pallas's fall in 55) and answers that Josephus puts most of Felix's acts under Nero and that Pallas was acquitted before the end of 55." }, { "author": "Roger Pearse and others (trans.)", "work": "Jerome, Chronicle (Latin version of Eusebius's Chronicle)", "year": "2005", "view": "Enters Festus's succession to Felix under Nero's second year, which the translator's column equates with AD 56." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Tests Acts against Roman law and administration, including a lecture on Paul before Felix and Festus, and judges the trial narratives consistent with Roman provincial practice of the period." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Examines literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence and argues that Acts is a coherent and consistent product of its first-century Hellenistic setting." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's narrative. Overlaps between Acts and Josephus may therefore reflect Luke's reading rather than independent knowledge." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about AD 115 and argues that its author knew Josephus's writings." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q464307", "label": "Porcius Festus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯论总督波求．非斯都", "summary": "约瑟夫斯记载，波求．非斯都由尼禄任命，在犹太接替腓力斯。他描述非斯都在一场关于圣殿围墙的争执中站在亚基帕二世王一边，并记载非斯都死于任上，由阿尔比努斯接任。这与《使徒行传》24:27–26:32中的继任次序和人物相符。约瑟夫斯从未提到保罗，也没有给出年份。非斯都到任的时间通常定在约公元59至60年，这是重构的结果。", "dating": "《犹太战记》通常定年为约公元75至79年；《犹太古史》完成于公元93/94年（《犹太古史》20.267）；所述为约公元59至62年的事件", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "约瑟夫斯记载，波求．非斯都是尼禄派往犹太接替腓力斯的总督（《犹太古史》20.182；《犹太战记》2.271）。《使徒行传》24:27给出同样的全名和同样的继任次序。", "在耶路撒冷事务上，约瑟夫斯把非斯都和亚基帕二世王放在同一边。两人都反对一道围墙：它挡住了国王望进圣殿的视线，也挡住了罗马守卫从圣殿西侧柱廊向下看的视线。非斯都下令拆除，但允许犹太人派使团向尼禄申诉（《犹太古史》20.189–196）。《使徒行传》25:13–26:32同样记载非斯都就一宗犹太宗教争议征询亚基帕的意见。", "非斯都死于任上。尼禄得知后派阿尔比努斯前往接任；在这段空档期，大祭司亚拿努使雅各——“那称为基督的耶稣的兄弟”——和其他一些人被定罪，处以石刑（《犹太古史》20.197–203）。多数人认为他就是《使徒行传》21:18和《加拉太书》1:19所说的雅各；这段文字的真实性得到广泛承认，但并非所有人都接受。", "约瑟夫斯把非斯都描绘成一位治理动荡行省、积极作为的总督。非斯都派骑兵和步兵讨伐一个在旷野活动的骗子的追随者（《犹太古史》20.185–188）；《犹太战记》则说他擒获了大部分盗匪，这一点与他的继任者阿尔比努斯不同（《犹太战记》2.271–272）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "约瑟夫斯从未提到保罗。在非斯都面前的审讯、向凯撒上诉，以及面见亚基帕和百尼基（《使徒行传》25:1–26:32），都只见于《使徒行传》。", "约瑟夫斯没有给出非斯都到任的年份，也没有说他任期多长。通常的年代（约公元59至60年到任，约公元62年去世）都是重构的结果。较早到任之说（约公元55至56年）一方面依据一则四世纪的编年记录（哲罗姆所译优西比乌《年代记》的拉丁文本，系于尼禄在位第二年），这则记录的来源不明；另一方面依据从帕拉斯在55年失去官职推出的论证。", "在总督的名字、他在继任次序中的位置，以及他与亚基帕的往来上彼此吻合，表明《使徒行传》符合这个政治背景，却不能证明《使徒行传》所叙述的讲辞或事件。如果路加使用了约瑟夫斯的著作，这些吻合就不能算作独立的证实。", "优西比乌的相关记述（《教会史》2.22.1；2.23.21）取材于《使徒行传》和他所引用的约瑟夫斯。它们重复了这些见证，而没有增添一个独立的见证。" ], "debate": "有两个问题仍无定论。年代：多数学者把非斯都到任定在约公元59至60年；McGiffert（1890）最宽允许59至61年，Schürer（1890）则定为60年。他们援引保罗提到腓力斯多年来一直审理这个民族之事的话（《使徒行传》24:10），以及约瑟夫斯置于尼禄治下的腓力斯时期事件（《犹太古史》20.160–181）。非斯都任期的终点依据《犹太战记》6.300–305：其中说，亚拿努之子耶稣被带到阿尔比努斯面前时，正值阿尔比努斯执政；此人的呼喊始于战争爆发前四年的住棚节。少数人倾向于公元55至56年。他们援引哲罗姆所译优西比乌《年代记》，并主张：据约瑟夫斯说，帕拉斯当时在尼禄面前极受尊荣，救了腓力斯（《犹太古史》20.182），而帕拉斯在55年失去了官职（塔西佗《编年史》13.14）。另一些人回应说，帕拉斯失去职位后仍保有地位：他在55年稍后被控谋反而获判无罪（《编年史》13.23），并且一直活到62年（《编年史》14.65）。依存关系：有些人主张路加使用了约瑟夫斯的著作；另一些人则判断《使徒行传》独立于约瑟夫斯。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "较早的年代方案", "statement": "非斯都约在公元55至56年到任。哲罗姆所译优西比乌《年代记》的拉丁文本，把更换总督系于尼禄在位第二年；约瑟夫斯所说帕拉斯救了腓力斯的话，也被读作要求这件事发生在帕拉斯于55年失去官职之前。编校者Valesius和Heinichen采用这一年代；Schürer（1890）则提到，后来主张腓力斯在尼禄在位初期被召回的学者中，有Kellner和Weber。按这种看法，保罗在该撒利亚受拘押以及他前往罗马的航程，都要往前推好几年。" }, { "label": "路加取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "如果《使徒行传》写于《犹太古史》（公元93/94年）之后，而且作者使用了约瑟夫斯的著作，那么共同的名字、继任次序以及与亚基帕的关联，所显示的就是路加使用了资料来源，而不是独立的证实。批评这种看法的人指出，《使徒行传》中有关非斯都的场景有许多是约瑟夫斯所没有的，而约瑟夫斯自己记载的非斯都事迹却一件也没有出现：sicarii、旷野的骗子和圣殿围墙。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-festus" }, { "id": "josephus-egyptian", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg004 (Josephus, Jewish War)", "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 21:37-39", "Acts 22:1-21", "Acts 23:24-26" ], "personIds": [ "person.josephus", "person.felix", "person.paul", "person.lysias" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.judea", "place.mount-of-olives" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.261-262 (Whiston 2.13.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "got together thirty thousand men that were deluded by him; these he led round about from the wilderness to the mount which was called the Mount of Olives, and was ready to break into Jerusalem by force from that place", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.263 (Whiston 2.13.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the Egyptian ran away, with a few others, while the greatest part of those that were with him were either destroyed or taken alive", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 2.254 (Whiston 2.13.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=2:whiston%20chapter=13:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "there sprang up another sort of robbers in Jerusalem, which were called Sicarii, who slew men in the day time, and in the midst of the city", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.169 (Whiston 20.8.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the Mount of Olives, as it was called, which lay over against the city", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.171-172 (Whiston 20.8.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He also slew four hundred of them, and took two hundred alive. But the Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight, but did not appear any more.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Josephus relates these events in the second book of his History. But it is worth while comparing the account of the Egyptian given here with that contained in the Acts of the Apostles.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 466 (the three figures)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the Egyptian escaped with a small number (i.e. small in comparison with the thirty thousand), who may well have been the four thousand mentioned by the author of the Acts", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 466 (on numerals)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "numbers are so treacherous in transcription that the difference may really have been originally less than it is. Whenever the main elements of two accounts are in substantial agreement, little stress can be laid upon a difference in figures.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "A. C. McGiffert", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1), note on HE 2.21", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.21.3, note 468", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Josephus in both of his accounts relates the uproar among events which he expressly assigns to Nero’s reign", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's writings. On Acts 21:38 judges the link of the Egyptian with the sicarii too close to the War's sequence to be coincidence." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44276", "label": "The Jewish War" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q316915", "label": "Antonius Felix" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q205976", "label": "Mount of Olives" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q282586", "label": "Sicarii" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "687928", "label": "Ierusalem/Hierosolyma/Col. Aelia Capitolina" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯论《使徒行传》21:38中的埃及先知", "summary": "约瑟夫斯两次描述一位未具名的埃及先知：腓力斯治理犹太期间，此人带领一群追随者来到橄榄山，在腓力斯的军队发动攻击时逃脱。在《使徒行传》21:38中，罗马千夫长问保罗是不是那个人。约瑟夫斯证实的是这个问题所预设的事件，而不是保罗被捕本身；而且数字各不相同：《犹太战记》说追随者约有30,000人，《犹太古史》说400人被杀、200人被俘，《使徒行传》则说4,000人。", "dating": "事件发生在公元五十年代中期，腓力斯任内、尼禄即位（54年）之后；记载于《犹太战记》（通常定年为约公元75至79年）和《犹太古史》（完成于公元93/94年，《犹太古史》20.267）", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "非基督徒的历史学家约瑟夫斯两次记载，腓力斯治理犹太期间，一个自称先知、只被称作“埃及人”的人带领一群追随者来到橄榄山，被腓力斯的军队击溃，自己却逃脱了（《犹太战记》2.261–263；《犹太古史》20.169–172）。", "《使徒行传》21:38中千夫长提问的前提与约瑟夫斯相符：同一位总督（《使徒行传》23:24–26）、同一个绰号、一场与旷野有关的运动（尽管方向不同，《犹太战记》2.262），以及一个逃脱后再未出现的首领（《犹太古史》20.172）。", "《使徒行传》21:38使用了拉丁语借词sicarii，约瑟夫斯正是用这个词称呼他所记腓力斯任内在耶路撒冷活动的匕首党（《犹太战记》2.254–257）；所以《使徒行传》的措辞符合约瑟夫斯所描述的五十年代（依存问题见下文）。", "约瑟夫斯自己的两处记载就难以协调：《犹太战记》说追随者约有30,000人，并说跟随那个埃及人的大多被杀或被俘；《犹太古史》则说400人被杀、200人被俘。《使徒行传》的4,000是第三个数字，并不是与某个确定的数字相冲突。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能佐证保罗被捕、他与千夫长的对话，或随后的讲辞（《使徒行传》22:1–21）；它证实的是这个问题所预设的较早事件。", "它不能判定哪个数字正确，也不能判定路加是知道约瑟夫斯的著作、依靠一般传闻，还是另有自己的来源。约瑟夫斯的两处记载是一个见证，而不是两个。", "约瑟夫斯从未把那个埃及人与sicarii联系起来。他把匕首党、旷野中的先知和那个埃及人描述为各自独立的乱事（《犹太战记》2.254–263），所以这种联系只见于《使徒行传》。", "各记载的方向不同：约瑟夫斯说那个埃及人的追随者是从旷野（《犹太战记》）或从城里（《犹太古史》）来到橄榄山，而《使徒行传》21:38说的是有人被领出去，进入旷野。" ], "debate": "有两个问题仍无定论。关于数字，《犹太战记》的30,000可能是一个约数，或被夸大的人群估计。McGiffert（1890）援引Tholuck，则把30,000读作四散的乌合之众，600是腓力斯所杀或所俘的盗匪，4,000则是跟随那个埃及人逃脱的少数人；他还补充说，数字很容易抄错。关于依存关系，Steve Mason主张路加知道约瑟夫斯的著作，因为《犹太战记》恰好在描述那个埃及人之前描述了sicarii，而把那个埃及人与sicarii连在一起，与《犹太战记》的顺序太过吻合，不像是巧合。另一些人回应说，《使徒行传》的4,000、行进方向和措辞都与约瑟夫斯的两处记载不符，这表明作者是独立得知近期一场臭名昭著的起事。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行传》取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "路加知道约瑟夫斯的著作，并把《犹太战记》2.254–263中紧接在那个埃及人之前描述的sicarii，附加到那个埃及人的运动上。按这种看法，《使徒行传》写于《犹太战记》之后；如果路加使用的是《犹太古史》，则写于公元93/94年之后。" }, { "label": "对这场起事的独立记忆", "statement": "路加或他的资料来源，可能没有读过约瑟夫斯，就把近期一场臭名昭著的起事与同一时期的匕首党连在一起。《使徒行传》中的数字、行进方向和措辞都不依循约瑟夫斯的任何一处记载，这指向独立的认识，而不是抄袭。" }, { "label": "协调各个数字", "statement": "三个数字计算的是不同的群体：四散的30,000人群、约600名被杀或被俘者，以及跟随首领逃脱的4,000人。McGiffert（1890）援引Tholuck提出这一看法，同时也承认数字很容易抄错。这种解释需要把《犹太战记》所说他与少数几人一同逃脱，理解为相对于30,000而言的少数。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-egyptian" }, { "id": "josephus-famine", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 93, "dateTo": 94, "corpusReferences": [ "CTS urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0526.tlg001 (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 12:25", "Acts 12:20-23", "Acts 5:36-37", "Galatians 2:1-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.josephus", "person.claudius", "person.agabus", "person.barnabas", "person.paul", "person.herod-agrippa-i" ], "placeIds": [ "place.jerusalem", "place.judea", "place.antioch", "place.alexandria", "place.cyprus", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.51-53 (Whiston 20.2.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=2:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.101 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under these procurators that great famine happened in Judea, in which queen Helena bought corn in Egypt at a great expense, and distributed it to those that were in want, as I have related already.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.102 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the sons of Judas of Galilee were now slain; I mean of that Judas who caused the people to revolt, when Cyrenius came to take an account of the estates of the Jews", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.103-104 (Whiston 20.5.2)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And now it was that Cumanus came as successor to Tiberius Alexander; as also that Herod, brother of Agrippa the great king, departed this life, in the eighth year of the reign of Claudius Caesar.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.17 (Whiston 20.2.1)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time it was that Helena, queen of Adiabene, and her son Izates, changed their course of life, and embraced the Jewish customs", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.97 (Whiston 20.5.1)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Now it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of Judea, that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 3.320 (Whiston 3.15.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=3:whiston%20chapter=15:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a little before the beginning of this war, when Claudius was emperor of the Romans, and Ismael was our high priest, and when so great a famine", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.179 (Whiston 20.8.8)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=8:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "About this time king Agrippa gave the high priesthood to Ismael, who was the son of Fabi.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.267 (Whiston 20.11.3)", "url": "https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2848/pg2848.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which is the thirteenth year of the reign of Cæsar Domitian, and the fifty-sixth year of my own life", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "The Lives of the Caesars: Claudius", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914", "locator": "Claud. 18.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "When there was a scarcity of grain because of long-continued droughts, he was once stopped in the middle of the Forum by a mob and so pelted with abuse and at the same time with pieces of bread", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 12.43", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=43", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Scanty crops too, and consequent famine were regarded as a token of calamity.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 12.41", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=12:chapter=41", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the fifth consulship of Tiberius Claudius with Sextius Cornelius Orfitus for his colleague", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1914–1927", "locator": "Dio 60.10.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Claudius was now consul with Gaius Largus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1914–1927", "locator": "Dio 60.11.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the occasion of a severe famine he considered the problem of providing an abundant food-supply, not only for that particular crisis but for all future time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.8.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Under him the world was visited with a famine, which writers that are entire strangers to our religion have recorded in their histories.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.11.3-2.12.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Besides this he also makes mention of the famine, which took place in the reign of Claudius, in the following words.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Orosius", "work": "Historiae adversus paganos", "locator": "Hist. 7.6.12", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (Schürer's verdict)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke’s brief statement about the famine is declared by Dr. Schürer to be unhistorical, improbable, and uncorroborated by other evidence.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (date of the famine)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The great famine in Palestine occurred probably in A.D. 46.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. III §3 (Galatians and the relief visit)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.vi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But we are not reduced to this single account of the mission to Jerusalem. Paul, in writing to the Galatians, also mentions it", "role": "early-study" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "view": "Dates the Palestinian famine probably to AD 46 and reads Acts as claiming dearth across the Roman world in different years of Claudius's reign. Treats Orosius's date as one year too early, placing the famine's onset in 45. Reads Acts 12 as a digression between the sending and the delivery of the relief, and identifies the relief visit with Galatians 2:1-10." }, { "author": "Kenneth S. Gapp", "work": "The Universal Famine under Claudius (Harvard Theological Review 28)", "year": "1935", "view": "Uses Egyptian papyri pointing to a failed wheat harvest c. AD 45-46, after a very high Nile, to argue that the universal famine cannot be explained as a mere sequence of local famines; dates the Judean famine to AD 46 or 47 under Tiberius Alexander." }, { "author": "Joachim Jeremias", "work": "Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus (ET)", "year": "1969", "view": "Dates the Judean famine's height to AD 47-48, aggravated by a sabbatical year." }, { "author": "Emil Schürer (rev. Geza Vermes and Fergus Millar)", "work": "The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), vol. 1", "year": "1973", "view": "Treats the view that a world-wide famine occurred under Claudius as improbable." }, { "author": "Bruce W. Winter", "work": "Secular and Christian Responses to Corinthian Famines (Tyndale Bulletin 40)", "year": "1989", "view": "Argues the Claudian dearth was widespread though not felt everywhere at once, citing repeated grain shortages at Corinth." }, { "author": "Peter Garnsey", "work": "Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis", "year": "1988", "view": "Distinguishes frequent, usually local food shortages from rarer true famines. This is a caution against reading ancient famine reports as a single empire-wide catastrophe." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed.)", "year": "2003", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus's Antiquities. On that view, parallels such as the Theudas and Judas notices beside the famine report would be literary dependence rather than independent corroboration." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q134461", "label": "Josephus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2655769", "label": "Helena of Adiabene" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q3047056", "label": "Izates bar Monobaz" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q459841", "label": "Cuspius Fadus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q361357", "label": "Tiberius Julius Alexander" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯论革老丢治下犹太的饥荒", "summary": "犹太历史学家约瑟夫斯约在公元93/94年写作，记载革老丢在位时耶路撒冷和犹太发生严重饥荒，时间在法杜斯任内，或按Niese所印的希腊文本，在其继任者提比略·亚历山大任内（约公元44至48年）。阿迪亚贝内的王后海伦娜购买粮食，缓解了饥荒。这与《使徒行传》所记革老丢在位期间的饥荒以及犹太的困乏相符。但约瑟夫斯从未提到基督徒、亚迦布、巴拿巴或扫罗，也没有任何资料记载过一场遍及整个罗马世界的单一饥荒。", "dating": "《犹太古史》完成于公元93/94年（《犹太古史》20.267）。书中所记的饥荒发生在库斯皮乌斯·法杜斯或提比略·亚历山大任内，约公元44至48年；关于饥荒最严重时期的推定年代，从公元46年到47/48年不等。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "约瑟夫斯是犹太历史学家，不是基督徒。他记载革老丢在位时耶路撒冷和犹太发生严重饥荒，许多人死亡（《犹太古史》20.51、20.101），时间在法杜斯任内，或按Niese所印的希腊文本，在其继任者提比略·亚历山大任内（约公元44至48年）。大约在卡尔基斯的希律去世时，即革老丢在位第八年，库马努斯接替了提比略·亚历山大（《犹太古史》20.103–104）。", "耶路撒冷得到的援助来自犹太以外。已接受犹太习俗的阿迪亚贝内的海伦娜（《犹太古史》20.17），派人在亚历山太购买粮食，在塞浦路斯购买干无花果。她的儿子伊札特斯把钱送给耶路撒冷的首领们（《犹太古史》20.51–53）。可见，在这场饥荒中外界对耶路撒冷的救济，在《使徒行传》以外也有记载。", "罗马作家记载，革老丢在位时罗马一再出现粮荒。狄奥在记述公元42年时报道了一场严重饥荒（狄奥60.10.1、60.11.1）。公元51年，在收成不好之后，罗马的存粮只够十五天，一群人在广场（Forum）上围攻皇帝（塔西佗《编年史》12.41、12.43；参见苏维托尼乌斯《革老丢传》18.2）。", "《使徒行传》把一场饥荒定在革老丢在位期间，并记载有救济送往犹太（《使徒行传》11:28–30）。这在统治时期和地区上都与约瑟夫斯一致。《使徒行传》没有给出年份，而它把饥荒的记载放在希律·亚基帕一世去世（公元44年；《使徒行传》12:20–23）前后，与约瑟夫斯的约44至48年只是大致吻合；Ramsay把《使徒行传》12章读作插叙。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "约瑟夫斯完全没有提到基督徒、亚迦布的预言、安提阿的捐献，或巴拿巴和扫罗的行程（《使徒行传》11:30；12:25）。这些细节只见于《使徒行传》。饥荒和统治时期正确，本身并不能证实那次探访。", "没有任何资料描述过一场同时遍及罗马世界的饥荒。有记载的粮荒分布在不同的年份和地点（罗马：42年和51年；埃及：约45至46年；犹太：约44至48年）。这些粮荒是否构成一场广泛的匮乏，还是《使徒行传》作了概括，仍有争议。", "饥荒的确切年份无法确定。《犹太古史》20.101既可以读作涵盖两任总督，也可以读作只指提比略·亚历山大。约瑟夫斯另一处提到饥荒的记载（《犹太古史》3.320）提到一位名叫以实玛利的大祭司，但第20卷直到记载革老丢去世之后，才说亚基帕二世任命了一位以实玛利（《犹太古史》20.179）。", "后来的基督教作家没有增添独立的证据。优西比乌引用了约瑟夫斯（《教会史》2.11.3–2.12.1）；奥罗修斯（《反异教史》7.6.12）把一场遍及叙利亚的饥荒放在革老丢在位第四年，并说海伦娜归信了基督，这与约瑟夫斯的记载相悖。如果路加使用了约瑟夫斯的著作，《使徒行传》关于饥荒的记载也就不是独立的。" ], "debate": "年代：Whiston把《犹太古史》20.101译作“在这些总督任内”，涵盖法杜斯和提比略·亚历山大；Niese所印的希腊文本则作单数，这会把饥荒限定在提比略·亚历山大任内（约46至48年）。推定的年代从46年（Ramsay）或46/47年（Gapp，依据埃及纸草文献）到47/48年（Jeremias，依据安息年）不等。范围：Ramsay和Gapp都认为《使徒行传》所说遍及天下的饥荒确有其事，但理解不同；Schürer则判定这是不符合历史的概括。依存关系：《犹太古史》20.97–102先记载丢大，再记载犹大的儿子们，所以有些人主张路加读过约瑟夫斯；另一些人则认为两者差异太大。那次探访：有些人认为就是《加拉太书》2:1–10所说的那次；另一些人认为《加拉太书》1至2章没有给它留下余地。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加把一场地方饥荒泛化为普遍饥荒", "statement": "Ramsay记述，Emil Schürer判定路加关于饥荒的陈述不符合历史、不太可能，也缺乏佐证；修订版Schürer（1973）仍然认为遍及天下的饥荒不太可能。按这种看法，《使徒行传》把犹太的饥荒变成了一件天下大事。一些批评者根据保罗在《加拉太书》1至2章中对自己几次上耶路撒冷的亲述，也把巴拿巴和扫罗送救济的那次探访视为路加的建构，而不是另一次独立的行程。" }, { "label": "一个接连出现地区性粮荒的统治时期", "statement": "Ramsay主张，《使徒行传》所说的是在革老丢在位期间罗马世界各地都有饥荒，而不是在某一年之内。按他的读法，罗马和其他地方在不同年份出现的粮荒，加上犹太的饥荒（他认为可能在公元46年），就符合这一说法。" }, { "label": "一场广泛的匮乏", "statement": "Gapp（1935）根据埃及纸草文献论证，45至46年尼罗河水位过高，使埃及种植小麦无利可图；他还认为，普遍的饥荒不能仅仅解释为一连串地方饥荒。Winter（1989）同样判断这场匮乏范围广泛，只是并非各地同时感受到。" }, { "label": "《使徒行传》取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "《犹太古史》20.97–102先记载法杜斯任内的丢大，然后记载加利利人犹大的儿子们被处决，并提及犹大当年的叛乱。《使徒行传》5:36–37先提到丢大，再提到犹大，所以有些人主张路加依循了约瑟夫斯的顺序。另一些人回应说，《使徒行传》把丢大放在公元6年犹大叛乱之前，所述的追随者也不同，一个读过约瑟夫斯的人很难写出这样的内容。" }, { "label": "送救济的探访就是《加拉太书》2章的那次", "statement": "Ramsay和许多承认这次送救济探访具有历史性的人一样，认为它就是《加拉太书》2:1–10中保罗在耶路撒冷的私下会面，并指出那里有请他顾念穷人的要求。另一些人把《加拉太书》2章等同于《使徒行传》15章的会议，并用其他方式协调这次送救济的探访与《加拉太书》，或者怀疑这次探访是否发生过。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-famine" }, { "id": "josephus-agrippa-bernice", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 75, "dateTo": 130, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 25:13-26:32", "Acts 25:13-22", "Acts 25:23", "Acts 26:3", "Acts 26:30-32" ], "personIds": [ "person.agrippa", "person.bernice", "person.festus", "person.paul", "person.josephus", "person.herod-agrippa-i", "person.claudius", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.caesarea", "place.jerusalem", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.145-147 (Whiston 20.7.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D7%3Awhiston%20section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when the report went that she had criminal conversation with her brother, [Agrippa, junior,] she persuaded Poleme, who was king of Cilicia, to be circumcised, and to marry her, as supposing that by this means she should prove those calumnies upon her to be false", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.137-140 (Whiston 20.7.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D7%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he bestowed upon Agrippa the tetrarchy of Philip and Batanea, and added thereto Trachonites, with Abila; which last had been the tetrarchy of Lysanias; but he took from him Chalcis, when he had been governor thereof four years.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.158-159 (Whiston 20.8.4)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D8%3Awhiston%20section%3D4", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Caesar also bestowed on Agrippa a certain part of Galilee, Tiberias, and Tarichae, and ordered them to submit to his jurisdiction. He gave him also Julias, a city of Perea, with fourteen villages that lay about it.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.189-196 (Whiston 20.8.11)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D8%3Awhiston%20section%3D11", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "At these doings both king Agrippa, and principally Festus the procurator, were much displeased; and Festus ordered them to pull the wall down again", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 20.222-223 (Whiston 20.9.7)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D20%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D9%3Awhiston%20section%3D7", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But king Agrippa, who had the care of the temple committed to him by Claudius Caesar", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 19.354 (Whiston 19.9.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D19%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D9%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But he left behind him a son, Agrippa by name, a youth in the seventeenth year of his age, and three daughters; one of which, Bernice, was married to Herod, his father's brother, and was sixteen years old;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.342-344 (Whiston 2.16.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D16%3Awhiston%20section%3D3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He therefore called the multitude together into a large gallery, and placed his sister Bernice in the house of the Asamoneans, that she might be seen by them,", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.402-404 (Whiston 2.16.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D16%3Awhiston%20section%3D5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "When Agrippa had spoken thus, both he and his sister wept, and by their tears repressed a great deal of the violence of the people;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.405-407 (Whiston 2.17.1)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D17%3Awhiston%20section%3D1", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "THIS advice the people hearkened to, and went up into the temple with the king and Bernice, and began to rebuild the cloisters;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Wars of the Jews", "locator": "War 2.426 (Whiston 2.17.6)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston%20chapter%3D17%3Awhiston%20section%3D6", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The others then set fire to the house of Ananias the high priest, and to the palaces of Agrippa and Bernice;", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "juvenal-ramsay", "author": "Juvenal", "work": "Satires (Satire 6)", "locator": "Sat. 6.156-159", "url": "https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/juvenal_satires_06.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "a diamond of great renown, made precious by the finger of Berenice. It was given as a present long ago by the barbarian Agrippa to his incestuous sister, in that country where kings celebrate festal sabbaths with bare feet", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "G. G. Ramsay", "year": "1918" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Histories", "locator": "Hist. 2.2", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D2", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some supposed that he retraced his steps for love of Queen Berenice, nor was his young heart averse to her charms, but this affection occasioned no hindrance to action.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (reprinted 1942, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-histories-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Histories", "locator": "Hist. 2.81", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D81", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Queen Berenice too, who was then in the prime of youth and beauty, and who had charmed even the old Vespasian by the splendour of her presents, promoted his cause with equal zeal.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1873 (reprinted 1942, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Titus", "locator": "Tit. 7.1", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "his notorious passion for queen Berenice, to whom it was even said that he promised marriage.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History (Epitome)", "locator": "66.15.3-4 (Boissevain numbering, as in the LacusCurtius section anchors; printed in Cary's Loeb as Book 65)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Berenice was at the very height of her power and consequently came to Rome along with her brother Agrippa. The latter was given the rank of praetor, while she dwelt in the palace, cohabiting with Titus.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1925" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Max Krenkel", "work": "Josephus und Lucas", "year": "1894", "view": "Argued at length that Luke-Acts depends on Josephus' writings. This classic case for literary dependence would make Acts' agreement with Josephus derivative." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Argued that the accuracy of Acts' local and official details reflects early, independent knowledge. He rejected the case for Luke's dependence on Josephus." }, { "author": "Steve Mason", "work": "Josephus and the New Testament", "year": "1992", "view": "Argues that Luke probably knew Josephus' writings, since the overlaps between them, including Agrippa II and Bernice, would otherwise be a near-incredible series of coincidences. He grants that this cannot be proved." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to the early second century and argues that its author used Josephus' Antiquities." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q313419", "label": "Agrippa II" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q466696", "label": "Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1232616", "label": "Antiquities of the Jews" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44276", "label": "The Jewish War" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7426233", "label": "Satire VI (Juvenal)" } ], "title": "约瑟夫斯与尤维纳利斯笔下的亚基帕二世王和百尼基", "summary": "约瑟夫斯证实，亚基帕二世是受托照管耶路撒冷圣殿的罗马附庸王；他也记述亚基帕的妹妹百尼基公开陪在他身旁，正如《使徒行传》25:13–26:32所描写她在该撒利亚的情形。他还记下两人乱伦的传闻，尤维纳利斯后来把这传闻当作讽刺题材重提。这些资料证实的是这两人及其身份地位，而不是保罗受审讯一事；也有一些学者认为路加取材于约瑟夫斯。", "dating": "约瑟夫斯的《犹太战记》约成书于公元75至79年，《犹太古史》成书于公元93/94年（完成于图密善在位第十三年，《古史》20.267）；尤维纳利斯的《讽刺诗》第六首写于二世纪初。所述事件从公元44年延续到70年代。塔西佗和苏埃托尼乌斯（二世纪初）落在dateFrom至dateTo的范围内；狄奥（三世纪初）是这一范围之外较晚的佐证。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "希律王之子亚基帕二世，在《使徒行传》25–26章所述的年间，拥有一个由罗马授予的王国。革老丢把腓力原有的分封领地赐给他，取代卡尔基斯；尼禄又加给他太巴列、塔里凯亚和尤利亚斯（约瑟夫斯，《古史》19.354；20.138、20.159）。《使徒行传》称他为王，与这项记录相符。", "约瑟夫斯记述亚基帕和总督非斯都都卷入一场关于耶路撒冷圣殿的争端。他说革老丢已把照管圣殿之责交托亚基帕，而亚基帕任免大祭司（《古史》20.189–196、20.222–223）。这与《使徒行传》的描写相符：非斯都把一桩犹太宗教争议摆在亚基帕面前（《使徒行传》25:13–22；26:3）。", "百尼基是亚基帕的妹妹，也是卡尔基斯的希律的遗孀（《古史》20.145）；公元66年，她公开出现在他身旁。他演说时，她被安置在耶路撒冷群众看得见的地方；她与他一同哭泣，也和他一同上圣殿。叛乱者焚烧了“亚基帕和百尼基的宫殿”（《战记》2.344、402、405、426）。《使徒行传》记述她在该撒利亚与王同在（《使徒行传》25:13、23；26:30）。", "古代作者流传着百尼基与兄长乱伦的传闻。约瑟夫斯记下了这个传闻，也记下她为了证明传闻不实而嫁给基利家王波勒蒙（《古史》20.145–146）；尤维纳利斯则把它当作讽刺的笑柄重提（《讽刺诗》6.156–159）。这显示的是两人的名声，而不是指控属实。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些资料都没有提到保罗，也没有提到该撒利亚的那场审讯。它们证实的是这些人物及其身份地位，而不是《使徒行传》25:13–26:32所叙述的事件、讲辞或裁断。", "它们并不证明乱伦的指控。约瑟夫斯把它呈现为传闻，而百尼基本人视之为诽谤。尤维纳利斯是讽刺诗人，写作时已在数十年之后；而当时的罗马曾敌视这位与提图斯有牵连的东方女王（塔西佗《历史》2.2；苏埃托尼乌斯《提图斯传》7.1；狄奥66.15.3–4）。", "与约瑟夫斯相合，本身并不表明路加独立于他。正确的人名和头衔，可能来自对一对显赫王室人物的一般认识；也有一些学者主张路加熟悉约瑟夫斯的著作。" ], "debate": "有两个问题仍未解决。第一，《使徒行传》与约瑟夫斯是什么关系。一些学者主张路加使用过《古史》；若是这样，两者关于亚基帕和百尼基的一致就是衍生的，而非独立的。另一些学者指出其他地方的差异，以及这两人在五十和六十年代何等显赫，认为这是独立的认识。第二，乱伦传闻背后是什么。它可能是针对一位寡居女王的恶意闲话——她住在兄长的宫廷里，后来又因与提图斯的关系而令罗马哗然；也可能是当时广为人们相信的说法。没有任何资料提供比名声更多的东西。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "路加取材于约瑟夫斯", "statement": "如果《使徒行传》写于公元93/94年之后，它对亚基帕和百尼基的描绘就可能来自约瑟夫斯的《古史》，Max Krenkel（1894）和Richard Pervo（2006）就是这样主张的。按这种看法，两者的一致显示的是路加的资料来源，而不是独立的佐证。Steve Mason（1992）认为路加很可能熟悉约瑟夫斯的著作，但他承认这一点无法证明。" }, { "label": "早期的独立认识", "statement": "Colin Hemer（1989）等人认为，《使徒行传》对罗马官员和附庸王室的处理，反映了早期而独立的认识。按这种看法，亚基帕和百尼基是显赫的公众人物，他们一同露面的情形在犹太和叙利亚应当广为人知，因此路加无需文献来源也能正确称呼他们。" }, { "label": "传闻：诽谤还是当时的看法", "statement": "约瑟夫斯把这项指控表述为百尼基试图驳斥的传言，而尤维纳利斯的诗句是谩骂，因此许多读者把这个传闻视为闲话。另一些人指出，对亚基帕怀有好感的约瑟夫斯仍然选择记下此事，而且他说百尼基离开波勒蒙，“据说”是出于不洁的意图（《古史》20.146）。他们认为这意味着这种看法流传甚广，尽管它仍未得到证实。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-josephus-agrippa-bernice" }, { "id": "claudius-expulsion", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 119, "dateTo": 122, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:1-3", "Acts 18:12-17", "Romans 16:3-5", "Acts 28:17" ], "personIds": [ "person.claudius", "person.aquila", "person.priscilla", "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Life of Claudius (Lives of the Caesars)", "locator": "Claud. 25.4", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Loeb Suetonius, editor's note 75 on Claud. 25.4", "locator": "Claud. 25.4, note 75", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Another form of Christus; see Tert. Apol. 3 (at the end). It is uncertain whether Suetonius is guilty of an error in chronology or is referring to some Jew of that name. The former seems probable because of the absence of quodam.", "role": "early-study", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Divus Claudius (Latin text as printed in the Loeb Classical Library, 1913)", "locator": "Claud. 25.4", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit.", "role": "edition", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Suetonius, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library), Introduction", "locator": "Introduction, 'The Life and Works of Suetonius'", "url": "https://archive.org/download/suetonius01suet_0/suetonius01suet_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of all these the only work which has come down to us entire, or nearly so, is the Lives of the Caesars, published in 120.", "role": "early-study", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "J. C. Rolfe", "work": "Suetonius, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library), Introduction", "locator": "Introduction, 'The Life and Works of Suetonius'", "url": "https://archive.org/download/suetonius01suet_0/suetonius01suet_0_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "probably during the period when his friend and patron Gaius Septicius Clarus was a prefect of the praetorian guard (119 to 121).", "role": "early-study", "year": "1913" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Life of Nero (Lives of the Caesars)", "locator": "Nero 16.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "locator": "60.6.6", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "he did not drive them out, but ordered them, while continuing their traditional mode of life, not to hold meetings.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Paulus Orosius", "work": "Historiarum adversum paganos libri VII", "locator": "7.6.15", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Anno eiusdem nono expulsos per Claudium urbe Iudaeos Iosephus refert. sed me magis Suetonius mouet, qui ait hoc modo: Claudius Iudaeos inpulsore Christo adsidue tumultuantes Roma expulit", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "orosius-latin", "author": "Paulus Orosius", "work": "Historiarum adversum paganos libri VII", "locator": "7.6.16", "url": "https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius7.shtml", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "quod, utrum contra Christum tumultuantes Iudaeos coherceri et conprimi iusserit, an etiam Christianos simul uelut cognatae religionis homines uoluerit expelli, nequaquam discernitur.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "locator": "Ant. 18.81-84 (Whiston 18.3.5)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=18:whiston%20chapter=3:whiston%20section=5", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "ordered all the Jews to be banished out of Rome; at which time the consuls listed four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island Sardinia", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737 (Perseus text: Auburn and Buffalo, 1895)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Gerd Lüdemann", "work": "Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology", "year": "1984 (German original 1980)", "view": "Dates Claudius's edict to AD 41, treating Suetonius's notice and Dio 60.6.6 as one measure and setting aside Orosius's date. On that basis he argues for an early Pauline mission in Greece, including Corinth, before the Jerusalem meeting, and reads Acts 18 as combining material from more than one visit." }, { "author": "Rainer Riesner", "work": "Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology", "year": "1998 (German original 1994)", "view": "Defends AD 49 for the expulsion and reads Chrestus as Christ. Treats Dio's ban on meetings as an earlier, separate measure, consistent with Acts 18:2." }, { "author": "H. Dixon Slingerland", "work": "Claudian Policymaking and the Early Imperial Repression of Judaism at Rome", "year": "1997", "view": "Argues that 'Chrestus' is not Christ and that the burden of proof lies with those who identify them. Holds that Claud. 25.4 and Dio 60.6.6 describe different events, and suggests Chrestus may have been someone, perhaps a freedman adviser, who prompted Claudius to act. Reads Claudius's measures as Roman repression of Judaism, not as evidence about the Roman church." }, { "author": "Peter Lampe", "work": "From Paul to Valentinus: Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries", "year": "2003 (German original 1987)", "view": "Reads Chrestus as Christ and rejects dating the edict to AD 41. Disputes over Jesus within Rome's synagogues led Claudius to expel those involved, not the whole Jewish community." }, { "author": "Robert E. Van Voorst", "work": "Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence", "year": "2000", "view": "Judges Chrestus most likely an error for Christus, reflecting Suetonius's misunderstanding of disputes about Christ among Roman Jews." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q5129460", "label": "Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1411", "label": "Claudius" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q11085604", "label": "Priscilla and Aquila" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q220", "label": "Rome" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" } ], "title": "革老丢把犹太人逐出罗马（苏埃托尼乌斯《革老丢传》25.4）", "summary": "非基督教的罗马传记作家苏埃托尼乌斯记载，革老丢把犹太人逐出罗马，因为他们“在Chrestus的煽动下”不断制造骚乱（《革老丢传》25.4）。这是《使徒行传》18:2所提那类命令的独立证据。苏埃托尼乌斯没有给出日期。通常采用的公元49年只出自五世纪的奥罗修斯；狄奥只记载了公元41年的一项禁止聚会令；而“Chrestus”是否指基督，仍有争议。", "dating": "主要见证：苏埃托尼乌斯的《罗马十二帝王传》，约公元119至122年。Rolfe（1913）把该书的发表定在120年，并把其受献者塞普提基乌斯·克拉鲁斯担任长官的任期定在119至121年；dateFrom与dateTo即取这一写作时段。事件时段：革老丢在公元41年至约49年间采取的一项或多项措施。狄奥（三世纪初）把一项禁止犹太人聚会的命令列为革老丢即位第一年（公元41年）的举措；奥罗修斯（五世纪初）把驱逐定在革老丢在位第九年（约公元49年）。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "非基督教的罗马传记作家苏埃托尼乌斯（《革老丢传》25.4）记载，革老丢把犹太人逐出罗马，因为他们在一个名叫“Chrestus”的人煽动下不断骚乱。《使徒行传》18:2说，亚居拉和百基拉因一道驱逐令而新近从意大利来；苏埃托尼乌斯的记载是革老丢颁布过此类驱逐令的独立证据。两者很可能是同一道命令，但这取决于有争议的日期。", "狄奥·卡西乌斯（60.6.6）把一项关于犹太人的措施列为革老丢即位第一年（公元41年）的举措。他说犹太人人数太多，若要把他们排除在城外，势必引起骚乱，所以革老丢没有驱逐他们，而是让他们保持传统的生活方式，同时禁止他们聚会。这是同一行动的不同记载，还是另一项措施，仍有争议。", "奥罗修斯（《反异教徒史》7.6.15）给出唯一明确的日期：革老丢在位第九年，约公元49年。他说这项记载出自约瑟夫斯，但在约瑟夫斯现存的著作中找不到这样的段落。这些著作描述的是更早在提比略治下把犹太人逐出罗马的事（《犹太古史》18.81–84）。", "古代作者常把这两种拼法混在一起。奥罗修斯引述苏埃托尼乌斯时作“inpulsore Christo”，并把它理解为基督；不过他说，他无法断定革老丢所指的是反对基督而骚乱的犹太人，还是也包括基督徒（7.6.16）。Rolfe的注释称Chrestus为“Christus的另一种形式”，并指向特土良对异教徒错误读音“Chrestianus”的抱怨（《护教篇》3）。这使解作基督的读法显得合理，却不能证明它。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它并不表明“Chrestus”就是耶稣，也不表明这些骚乱是因基督教传道而起的争执。苏埃托尼乌斯两者都没有说。Loeb版所印的拉丁文作“Chresto”，而苏埃托尼乌斯用“Christiani”称呼在尼禄治下受罚的那个群体（《尼禄传》16.2）。", "它并不表明有多少犹太人离开了罗马，也不表明他们离开了多久。《使徒行传》描述的命令涵盖所有犹太人，而狄奥关于公元41年的记载却说革老丢没有驱逐他们。后来，百基拉和亚居拉（如果《罗马书》16章是写给罗马的）以及罗马的犹太领袖又出现在城中（《罗马书》16:3–5；《使徒行传》28:17）。", "它并不提供可靠的公元49年日期。苏埃托尼乌斯没有给出日期，而且把这条记载放在一些互不相关的措施之间；奥罗修斯所引用的依据也无法查证。" ], "debate": "许多历史学家把“Chrestus”看作罗马人对Christus的误拼。按这种看法，传讲耶稣是基督，在罗马的会堂中引发冲突，涉事的人因此被逐。《使徒行传》没有说亚居拉和百基拉当时是否已是信徒。另一些人，例如Slingerland，指出Chrestus是常见的人名，苏埃托尼乌斯知道“Christiani”一词，而大约同时写作的塔西佗用的是正确的形式“Christus”（《编年史》15.44）。按这种看法，Chrestus是另一个人：一个本地的煽动者，或是促使革老丢采取行动的某人。关于日期，许多人接受奥罗修斯的公元49年，把狄奥所记的禁止聚会令视为41年较早的一步。另一些人认为两项记载描述的是同一事件，也不信任奥罗修斯对约瑟夫斯的援引，因为那无法查证。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "Chrestus是基督以外的另一个人", "statement": "苏埃托尼乌斯所指的，可能是一个真名叫Chrestus的人。Rolfe在1914年的注释中提出过这种可能（“某个叫这名字的犹太人”），不过他判断解作基督的读法较有可能。H. Dixon Slingerland（1997）否定解作基督的读法，提出Chrestus是促使革老丢采取行动的某人，或许是一名获释奴出身的谋士。无论哪一种，这段文字都证实革老丢颁布过驱逐令，却没有说到罗马的信徒。" }, { "label": "公元41年的单一措施", "statement": "苏埃托尼乌斯和狄奥描述的是革老丢在位初期的同一项行动，奥罗修斯的49年并不可靠。若是这样，亚居拉和百基拉新近抵达哥林多一事，就需要保罗更早曾到访那里（如Lüdemann的年代学所主张），或需要对《使徒行传》18:1–3作较宽松的解读。" }, { "label": "两项措施：公元41年与约公元49年", "statement": "狄奥描述的是41年首次禁止犹太人聚会。苏埃托尼乌斯、《使徒行传》和奥罗修斯描述的是约49年一次较晚的驱逐，可能只限于卷入骚乱的人。这与保罗在迦流任省长前不久抵达哥林多相符（《使徒行传》18:12–17）。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-claudius-expulsion" }, { "id": "tacitus-neronian-persecution", "kind": "literary-non-christian", "dateFrom": 110, "dateTo": 120, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 28:15", "Acts 28:30-31", "Romans 1:7-8" ], "personIds": [ "person.nero", "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.judea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.38", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=38", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "A disaster followed, whether accidental or treacherously contrived by the emperor, is uncertain, as authors have given both accounts", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "locator": "Ann. 15.41", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=41", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some persons observed that the beginning of this conflagration was on the 19th of July, the day on which the Senones captured and fired Rome.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1942 (Random House reprint, as given by Perseus)" }, { "sourceKey": "suetonius-rolfe", "author": "Suetonius", "work": "Lives of the Caesars: Nero", "locator": "Nero 16.2", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. C. Rolfe", "year": "1914" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History (epitome of Book 62)", "locator": "62.16.1 (fire narrative 62.16-18; Christians not mentioned)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "After this Nero set his heart on accomplishing what had doubtless always been his desire, namely to make an end of the whole city and realm during his lifetime.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1925" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome (traditional attribution)", "work": "1 Clement", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.5-6", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius (quoting Tertullian)", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.25.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "locator": "HE 2.22.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Thus after he had made his defense it is said that the apostle was sent again upon the ministry of preaching, and that upon coming to the same city a second time he suffered martyrdom.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "locator": "Prescr. 36 (of the church at Rome)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Brent D. Shaw", "work": "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution (Journal of Roman Studies 105)", "year": "2015", "view": "Contests the conventional picture of a state persecution under Nero, including the mass execution after the fire and the deaths of Peter and Paul. Holds that Annals 15.44 is probably genuine Tacitus but reflects ideas current when Tacitus wrote, not the realities of the 60s." }, { "author": "Christopher P. Jones", "work": "The Historicity of the Neronian Persecution: A Response to Brent Shaw (New Testament Studies 63)", "year": "2017", "view": "Holds that there are no grounds for doubting Tacitus's report of the persecution. Notes that later sources dating the deaths of Peter and Paul to Nero's reign have no bearing on whether Tacitus's account is true." }, { "author": "Richard Carrier", "work": "The Prospect of a Christian Interpolation in Tacitus, Annals 15.44 (Vigiliae Christianae 68)", "year": "2014", "view": "Argues that the arguments for a late interpolation have no strong rebuttal, so the sentence referring to Christ should be considered suspect." }, { "author": "Henry Furneaux, rev. H. F. Pelham and C. D. Fisher", "work": "The Annals of Tacitus, vol. 2: Books XI-XVI (Oxford, 2nd ed.)", "year": "1907", "view": "Defends the passage as genuine on grounds of its Tacitean style and its partial transcription by Sulpicius Severus, while calling it a narrative necessarily at second hand. Judges that Suetonius follows a different authority, that Tertullian shows no knowledge of the passage, and that only Sulpicius Severus unmistakably follows Tacitus's narrative. Describes the second Medicean manuscript (latter half of the 11th century, Laurentian Library) as containing all that survives of Books 11-16." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q564358", "label": "Annals (Tacitus)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7673903", "label": "Tacitus on Christ" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q215231", "label": "Great Fire of Rome" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2161", "label": "Tacitus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1413", "label": "Nero" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" } ], "title": "塔西佗论罗马大火后尼禄对基督徒的惩处（《编年史》15.44）", "summary": "塔西佗写于二世纪初的《编年史》15.44，是唯一独立而详细的记述，讲到尼禄把64年7月的大火归罪于罗马的基督徒，并杀害其中许多人；苏尔皮修斯·塞维鲁后来的版本依赖于它。这段记述意味着，在《罗马书》和《使徒行传》28章所描绘的罗马，已有一个规模可观的基督徒群体。它没有提到任何使徒，对保罗之死也只字未提；少数历史学家主张，它反映的更多是塔西佗自己的时代，而不是六十年代。", "dating": "写于公元二世纪初：《编年史》通常定于约110至120年，Furneaux（1907）认为其完成时间距这场迫害足有五十年。所记的是公元64年7月19日大火之后的事件（《编年史》15.41）。", "currentLocation": "文本传统。《编年史》第11–16卷借第二美第奇抄本（十一世纪后半叶）流传下来，该抄本现藏佛罗伦萨的洛伦佐图书馆（Furneaux 1907）", "establishes": [ "塔西佗是罗马元老和历史学家，对这一运动怀有敌意。他记载，64年7月大火之后，尼禄把罪责转嫁给民众称为基督徒的人，其中极多的人被定罪，并在尼禄的园林中当作表演被处死（《编年史》15.44；大火日期见15.41）。", "按塔西佗的记述，到64年时，罗马的基督徒已人数众多、相当显眼，足以被单独挑出来。这与《罗马书》1:7–8所预设、已在罗马扎根的信徒群体相符；在《使徒行传》28:15中，这个群体的成员出来迎接保罗。", "苏埃托尼乌斯另外把惩处基督徒列为尼禄的治安措施之一（《尼禄传》16.2）。Furneaux判断他依据的是另一个来源；苏埃托尼乌斯也没有把这件事与大火联系起来。因此，尼禄时代在罗马针对基督徒的行动并不只依靠塔西佗一人，但与大火的关联却只依靠他：狄奥对大火的记述并未提到基督徒（狄奥62.16–18）。", "基督教传统认为保罗在尼禄治下死于罗马；这段文字为该传统提供了来自非基督教方面的背景。《革利免一书》第5章（通常定于约公元96年）说保罗在统治者面前作了见证，然后离开了这世界，但没有点名尼禄。特土良称尼禄为第一个迫害者，并把保罗之死置于罗马；优西比乌把它定在尼禄治下（《教会史》2.25.4–5；《论异端的时效》36）。这一传统的发展大体上与塔西佗无关。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它既没有提到保罗，也没有提到彼得或任何一位基督徒个人，因此不能作为保罗死于64年报复性惩处的证据。把尼禄与保罗之死相连的是基督教作者。在古代基督教作者中，只有苏尔皮修斯·塞维鲁（约公元400年）明显依循塔西佗的叙述（Furneaux 1907），而他进一步把保罗和彼得被定罪的时间定在那个时期（苏尔皮修斯《编年史》2.29）。", "它没有确定保罗死亡的年份、在罗马的地点或方式。特土良暗示他是被斩首的（“像约翰那样的死”），优西比乌则记载了这一点；塔西佗对此只字未提。保罗在《使徒行传》28章的拘禁之后是否获释，是另一个问题。", "它并不表明是基督徒放的火，也不表明是尼禄放的火：塔西佗说起火原因并不确定（《编年史》15.38）。它也不表明64年时已有一条针对基督徒的普遍法律，或一场遍及帝国的迫害。" ], "debate": "大多数历史学家接受《编年史》15.44确为塔西佗原文。Brent Shaw（2015）认为它很可能是真的，但主张它反映的是塔西佗本人时代的观念。他质疑尼禄曾下令大规模处决，也质疑彼得和保罗死于尼禄治下。Christopher P. Jones（2017）回应说，没有理由怀疑塔西佗的记载。Richard Carrier（2014）主张，提到Christus的那一句应被视为疑似后来插入的文字。另一个悬而未决的问题是：保罗是死于64年的报复性惩处，死于此前，还是获释后在尼禄统治后期才死。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "真实但时代错置（Shaw）", "statement": "这一章很可能出自塔西佗本人之手，但它把基督徒与大火相连，反映的是二世纪初的假设。按这种看法，尼禄在64年并未下令大规模处决基督徒，这段文字也不能确证彼得和保罗在尼禄治下殉道。" }, { "label": "可疑的Christus一句（Carrier）", "statement": "指出Christus在本丢·彼拉多治下被处死的那一句，可能是后来基督教方面的增补，应视为可疑。这项质疑针对的是那一句，而不是关于尼禄惩处行动的记载本身。" }, { "label": "与大火无关的保罗之死", "statement": "保罗可能死于64年之前，即《使徒行传》28:30–31所述两年拘禁结束之时；也可能在获释并第二次被囚于罗马之后，死于尼禄统治后期——优西比乌把后者作为传统记载下来（“据说”，《教会史》2.22.2）。无论哪种看法，塔西佗提供的都是大背景，而非事件本身。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-tacitus-neronian-persecution" }, { "id": "polycarp-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 110, "dateTo": 140, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1040" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 16:11-40", "Acts 2:24", "Philippians 1:5", "Philippians 2:16", "2 Thessalonians 1:4", "1 Corinthians 6:2", "1 Corinthians 6:9-10", "Galatians 4:26", "Galatians 6:7", "Ephesians 2:8-9", "Ephesians 4:26", "1 Timothy 2:1-2", "1 Timothy 6:7-10", "2 Timothy 4:10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.philippi" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 3.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul, who when he came among you taught face to face with the men of that day the word which concerneth truth carefully and surely; who also, when he was absent, wrote a letter unto you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 9.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "which also ye saw with your own eyes in the blessed Ignatius and Zosimus and Rufus, yea and in others also who came from among yourselves, as well as in Paul himself and the rest of the Apostles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 9.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "being persuaded that all these ran not in vain but in faith and righteousness, and that they are in their due place in the presence of the Lord, with whom also they suffered.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as Paul teacheth?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "among whom the blessed Paul labored, who were his letters in the beginning. For he boasteth of you in all those churches which alone at that time knew God; for we knew Him not as yet.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 12.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For I am persuaded that ye are well trained in the sacred writings, and nothing is hidden from you. But to myself this is not granted. Only, as it is said in these scriptures,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Letter to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 13.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover concerning Ignatius himself and those that were with him, if ye have any sure tidings, certify us.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 3, note 358", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The form is plural, but one Epistle is probably meant.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 1, note 341", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Acts ii. 24. Literally, “having loosed the pains of Hades.”", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 10, note 391", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.x.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This and the two following chapters are preserved only in a Latin version.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 11, note 401", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Some read, “named;” comp. Phil. i. 5.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 414", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Henceforth, to the end, we have only the Latin version.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 415", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Latin version reads “are,” which has been corrected as above.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (translators' notes)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "ch. 13, note 416", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.xiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Polycarp was aware of the death of Ignatius (chap. ix.), but was as yet apparently ignorant of the circumstances attending it.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Ante-Nicene Fathers translators", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "year": "1885", "locator": "Introductory Note (original Introductory Notice), on chapter 13", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "While there is no ground for supposing, as some have done, that the whole Epistle is spurious, there seems considerable force in the arguments by which many others have sought to prove chap. xiii. to be an interpolation.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Ante-Nicene Fathers translators", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1: Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "year": "1885", "locator": "Introductory Note (original Introductory Notice), on the date", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We shall not, however, probably be far wrong if we fix it about the middle of the second century.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.36.13", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Polycarp also mentions these letters in the epistle to the Philippians which is ascribed to him.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.36.15", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For they comprise faith and patience, and every kind of edification that pertains to our Lord. So much concerning Ignatius.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.14.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But Polycarp, in his above-mentioned epistle to the Philippians, which is still extant, has made use of certain testimonies drawn from the First Epistle of Peter.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.4 (Polycarp's letter)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is also a very powerful Epistle of Polycarp written to the Philippians, from which those who choose to do so, and are anxious about their salvation, can learn the character of his faith, and the preaching of the truth.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.4 (Polycarp and Marcion)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And Polycarp himself replied to Marcion, who met him on one occasion, and said, Do you know me? I do know you, the first-born of Satan.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "locator": "Q914111 (P7988 Clavis Patrum Graecorum ID 1040)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q914111.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place record: Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis", "locator": "501482", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/501482/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part II: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp", "year": "1885", "view": "Defended the authenticity and integrity of Polycarp's letter as a single letter written soon after Ignatius passed through Smyrna and Philippi, and used it as key external evidence for the Ignatian letters." }, { "author": "P. N. Harrison", "work": "Polycarp's Two Epistles to the Philippians", "year": "1936", "view": "Influential partition theory: chapter 13 (with 14) is an early covering note sent with Ignatius's letters, and chapters 1–12 are a separate, later letter of about 135." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Polykarp von Smyrna und die Pastoralbriefe", "year": "1951", "view": "Proposed that Polycarp or his circle composed the Pastoral Epistles, a minority view that would explain the 1 Timothy parallels as common origin rather than reception." }, { "author": "Kenneth Berding", "work": "Polycarp of Smyrna's View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy (Vigiliae Christianae)", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that because allusions to 1 and 2 Timothy follow Polycarp's explicit references to Paul, Polycarp probably regarded those letters as Paul's." }, { "author": "Kenneth Berding", "work": "Polycarp and Paul: An Analysis of Their Literary and Theological Relationship in Light of Polycarp's Use of Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature", "year": "2002", "view": "Finds Polycarp heavily indebted to the Pauline letters, with Pauline allusions clustering near his mentions of Paul, and argues he knew most of the Pauline corpus, including the Pastorals." }, { "author": "Paul Hartog", "work": "Polycarp and the New Testament: The Occasion, Rhetoric, Theme, and Unity of the Epistle to the Philippians and Its Allusions to New Testament Literature", "year": "2002", "view": "Defends the unity of the letter against the two-letter theory and assesses its allusions to New Testament writings." }, { "author": "Michael W. Holmes", "work": "Polycarp's Letter to the Philippians and the Writings that Later Formed the New Testament, in A. F. Gregory and C. M. Tuckett (eds.), The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "2005", "view": "Grades each proposed parallel by probability instead of counting every verbal echo, separating very likely uses of Pauline letters from merely possible ones." }, { "author": "Timothy D. Barnes", "work": "The Date of Ignatius (Expository Times)", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues that Ignatius's letters belong to the 140s rather than Trajan's reign. If accepted, this would also move the date of Polycarp's letter, which is tied to Ignatius." }, { "author": "Kirsopp Lake", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library)", "year": "1912", "view": "Edition and translation that renders the plural of 3.2 as letters and describes the textual basis: defective Greek manuscripts, Eusebius's quotations and the Latin version. Named here as further reading; not cited as a source." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q914111", "label": "Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q192371", "label": "Polycarp" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "501482", "label": "Krenides/Philippi/Col. Augusta Iulia Philippensis" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "550893", "label": "Smyrna/Eurydikeia" } ], "title": "坡旅甲《致腓立比人书》论保罗及其书信", "summary": "士每拿的坡旅甲写给腓立比教会的信（约公元110至140年）回忆说，保罗曾亲自在那里教导，后来又写信给他们（3.2；11.3）。这封信把保罗列为受过苦的使徒之一（9.1–2），把《哥林多前书》中的一项教导归于他，又呼应《以弗所书》和《提摩太前书》，可见这些书信和相关记忆很早就已在使用中。它不能断定《以弗所书》或《提摩太前书》的作者是谁，也没有为《使徒行传》补充任何事件。", "dating": "约公元110至140年。通常定在伊格那丢前往罗马途中经过士每拿和腓立比之后不久；按Harrison的两封信理论，第1–12章属于约135年。《尼西亚前教父》译者的说明把这封信定在二世纪中叶左右；少数人依循把伊格那丢定于140年代的看法（Barnes），会把它定得更晚。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "坡旅甲告诉腓立比信徒，保罗曾亲自在他们中间教导，不在时写信给他们，并在他们中间“劳苦”（3.2；11.3）。这是二世纪初的教会记忆，与《使徒行传》16章和保罗的《腓立比书》相符。", "他（用“正如保罗所教导的”一语）把《哥林多前书》6:2中的教导归于保罗（11.2）。他的措辞与《提摩太前书》6:7和6:10（4.1）、《以弗所书》2:8–9（1.3）以及《以弗所书》4:26（12.1）十分接近；因此，他写信时，士每拿极有可能已经知道《以弗所书》的措辞，也很可能已经知道《提摩太前书》的措辞。", "另有一些措辞类似《加拉太书》4:26（3.3）、《加拉太书》6:7（5.1）、《哥林多前书》6:9–10（5.3）、《腓立比书》2:16和《提摩太后书》4:10（9.2），以及《提摩太前书》2:1–2（12.3）。这些是编者对措辞所作的比较；它们显示坡旅甲熟悉保罗书信的用语，却不能说明他手中有哪些书信，或他怎样看待这些书信。", "他把“保罗本人和其余的使徒”与伊格那丢以及腓立比的信徒并列，作为忍耐的榜样：他们曾与主一同受苦，如今与主同在（9.1–2）。", "这封信很早就有见证。约180年时，爱任纽已称许它（《驳异端》3.3.4）。后来优西比乌以希腊文引用了9.1–2和13.1–2，在请求打听伊格那丢消息之处以前停住，并指出这封信使用了《彼得前书》（《教会史》3.36.13–15；4.14.9）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "坡旅甲没有提到任何书信的名称，也没有为那些与《提摩太前书》或《以弗所书》相似的措辞标出作者的名字。这些平行之处显示这些措辞当时已在使用，而不是证明保罗写了这两封书信。", "关于保罗在腓立比的宣教或他的死，这封信没有增添任何独立的细节。9.2说众使徒受过苦，如今与主同在，却没有说保罗怎样、何时或在哪里死去。", "3.2中译作“一封信”的那个希腊文复数词，本身并不表明保罗给腓立比信徒写过不止一封信。", "第10–12章、第13章末尾和第14章只有拉丁文本存世（优西比乌以希腊文保存了第9章和第13章的大部分），因此这些部分的确切措辞并不确定，包括13.2中那些人“正”与他同在的现在时说法，以及11.2中归于保罗的说法。" ], "debate": "完整性与日期：9.1–2把伊格那丢列在如今与主同在的人当中，13.2却请求打听他和与他同在之人的消息。因此，P. N. Harrison把文本分为一封较早的附函（第13章，或许连同第14章）和一封约135年的较晚书信（第1–12章）。在他之前的Lightfoot和在他之后的Hartog，都主张这是伊格那丢旅程后不久写成的一封信。更早的一些批评者则把第13章视为窜入的文字，《尼西亚前教父》译者的说明认为这种看法颇有说服力。所指：3.2中的复数指一封信还是数封信。依赖关系：与《以弗所书》和《提摩太前书》的平行之处是否属于文献借用，以及坡旅甲是否认为这些书信出自保罗。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "两封信（Harrison）", "statement": "P. N. Harrison（1936）把第13章理解为随伊格那丢书信一同寄出的早期附函，写于伊格那丢的结局尚不可知之时；13.2的拉丁文说到那些“正”与他同在的人。他把第1–12章理解为约135年的一封较晚书信，或许是在回应类似马吉安的教导，而这一关联受到其他人的质疑。主张只有一封信的人回应说，坡旅甲可能在得知伊格那丢死亡的具体情形之前，就已知道他死了。" }, { "label": "3.2中的复数是什么意思", "statement": "这个希腊文复数可能指单独一封信，正如《尼西亚前教父》的译者所注明、Lightfoot所翻译的那样。它也可能反映写给腓立比的不止一封信，正如某些把正典《腓立比书》分割为数封信的理论所提出的。或者，它可能笼统地包括保罗写给帖撒罗尼迦和哥林多的书信，正如该版本中一条方括号内的编者注所暗示的；保罗在众教会中夸耀腓立比信徒（11.3），与《帖撒罗尼迦后书》1:4相似。" }, { "label": "11.3的措辞", "statement": "11.3的拉丁文晦涩难解。Lightfoot把它译为腓立比信徒是保罗“起初的书信”；《尼西亚前教父》的译者则译为他们在他书信的开头受到称赞，并对照《腓立比书》1:5。无论哪种译法，这句话都在回顾保罗与腓立比的通信，却没有增添新的事实。" }, { "label": "共同传统或共同作者，而非引用", "statement": "4.1中关于贪财以及人来到世上时一无所带的话，呼应了当时更广泛流行的道德格言，因此有些人判断坡旅甲依赖《提摩太前书》是很可能的，而非确定的。Hans von Campenhausen（1951）提出教牧书信是坡旅甲或他的圈子所写；若是这样，这些平行之处显示的就是共同的来源，而不是坡旅甲对这些书信的接受，但大多数学者没有采纳这种看法。" }, { "label": "《以弗所书》被称为圣经？", "statement": "在只有拉丁文本存世的12.1中，坡旅甲用“正如这些经书上所说的”一语，引出《诗篇》4:4和《以弗所书》4:26的措辞。有些人认为这是把《以弗所书》当作圣经。另一些人认为，坡旅甲以为这两句话都出自旧约，或者认为译者的措辞不足以支持这样的推论。" }, { "label": "知道《使徒行传》吗？", "statement": "在1.2中，坡旅甲说到神解开阴间的痛楚，这一说法与《使徒行传》2:24十分相近，《尼西亚前教父》的译者已注意到这一点。它可能反映坡旅甲知道《使徒行传》，也可能是关于复活的一种共同的早期套语，因此不能作为《使徒行传》曾在士每拿流传的可靠证据。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-polycarp-paul" }, { "id": "first-clement-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 70, "dateTo": 140, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1001", "Gregory-Aland 02 (Codex Alexandrinus), London, British Library, Royal MS 1 D VIII, 5th century; 1 Clement incomplete (a leaf lost near the end)", "Codex Hierosolymitanus 54 (Jerusalem, Holy Sepulchre collection), dated AD 1056, 1 Clement on fols. 51b-70a; formerly no. 456 in the Holy Sepulchre library at Constantinople (Lightfoot 1890)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Corinthians 1:10-12", "1 Corinthians 3:4-6", "2 Corinthians 11:23-25", "Acts 13:50", "Acts 14:19", "Romans 15:24", "Romans 15:28", "Acts 28:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter", "person.apollos" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.6", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.7", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "let us come to those champions who lived very near to our time. Let us set before us the noble examples which belong to our generation.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "1 Clem. 5.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "By reason of jealousy and envy the greatest and most righteous pillars of the Church were persecuted, and contended even unto death.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 47.1-3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle. What wrote he first unto you in the beginning of the Gospel? Of a truth he charged you in the Spirit concerning himself and Cephas and Apollos, because that even then ye had made parties.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 6.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Unto these men of holy lives was gathered a vast multitude of the elect, who through many indignities and tortures, being the victims of jealousy, set a brave example among ourselves.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 1.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "By reason of the sudden and repeated calamities and reverses which are befalling us, brethren, we consider that we have been somewhat tardy in giving heed to the matters of dispute that have arisen among you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Church of Rome (traditionally Clement of Rome)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. inscription (salutation)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('the extreme west'), p. 30", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the Epistle to the Romans (xv. 24) S. Paul had stated his intention of visiting Spain. From the language of Clement here it appears that this intention was fulfilled.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('the extreme west'), p. 31", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But it is incredible that a writer living in the metropolis and centre of power and civilization could speak of it as ‘the extreme west,’", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 2", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on 1 Clem. 5 ('seven times'), p. 29", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0102clem/apostolicfathers0102clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the imprisonment at Philippi is the only one recorded in the Acts before the date of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Clement therefore must have derived his more precise information from some other source.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 27", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the date of this epistle, as determined by internal and external evidence alike, is about A.D. 95 or 96", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 118 (Alexandrian MS)", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In addition to this, a leaf is wanting towards the close of the First Epistle, between fol. 167 and fol. 168,", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome, vol. 1", "year": "1890", "locator": "Part I, vol. 1, p. 122 (Constantinople MS)", "url": "https://archive.org/stream/apostolicfathers0101clem/apostolicfathers0101clem_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The date A.M. 6564 is here given according to the Byzantine reckoning, and corresponds to A.D. 1056, which is therefore the date of the completion of the ms.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "AH 3.3.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the time of this Clement, no small dissension having occurred among the brethren at Corinth, the Church in Rome dispatched a most powerful letter to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace, renewing their faith, and declaring the tradition which it had lately received from the apostles", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.16", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is extant an epistle of this Clement which is acknowledged to be genuine and is of considerable length and of remarkable merit. He wrote it in the name of the church of Rome to the church of Corinth, when a sedition had arisen in the latter church.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea, quoting Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170)", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.23.11", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Today we have passed the Lord's holy day, in which we have read your epistle. From it, whenever we read it, we shall always be able to draw advice, as also from the former epistle, which was written to us through Clement.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea, quoting Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170)", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "§2 in ANF numbering (on Acts)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "by the omission of the passion of Peter, and also of the journey of Paul, when he went from the city — Rome — to Spain.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 15.44", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D15%3Achapter%3D44", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste: GA 02 (Codex Alexandrinus)", "locator": "docID 20002 (GA 02; London, British Library, Royal 1 D.VIII; 5th century)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "First Epistle of Clement", "locator": "Q10993949 (P7988 Clavis Patrum Graecorum ID 1001)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q10993949.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "author": "Wikidata", "work": "Codex Hierosolymitanus", "locator": "Q2724904 (inventory Codex Hierosolymitanus 54; inception 1056)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2724904.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part I: S. Clement of Rome (2 vols., 2nd ed.)", "year": "1890", "view": "Dated the letter about AD 95 or 96. Read 'the extreme west' as Spain, which implies Paul was released after the Roman custody of Acts. Held that the seven imprisonments must come from information beyond Acts. Rejected identifying the author with the Clement of Philippians 4:3." }, { "author": "Oxford Society of Historical Theology (committee)", "work": "The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "1905", "view": "Judged it beyond doubt that 1 Clement 47 refers to 1 Corinthians, citing the references to Cephas and Apollos and actual quotations from the letter." }, { "author": "George Edmundson", "work": "The Church in Rome in the First Century", "year": "1913", "view": "Dated the letter to the beginning of AD 70, reading the calamities of 1.1 as the troubles of AD 69. Took Clement as a contemporary witness that Paul travelled to the far West after his acquittal." }, { "author": "John A. T. Robinson", "work": "Redating the New Testament", "year": "1976", "view": "Followed Edmundson in placing 1 Clement around AD 70, before the fall of the temple." }, { "author": "Andreas Lindemann", "work": "Paulus im ältesten Christentum", "year": "1979", "view": "Treats 1 Clement as a key early witness to how Paul and his letters, especially 1 Corinthians, were received and used as authority." }, { "author": "L. L. Welborn", "work": "On the Date of First Clement (Biblical Research 29)", "year": "1984", "view": "Argued that the 'calamities' of 1.1 do not show a Domitianic persecution, so the conventional 95-96 date lacks a firm anchor and the letter can be placed only within a broader window." }, { "author": "L. L. Welborn", "work": "Clement, First Epistle of (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 1)", "year": "1992", "view": "Treats the delay formula of 1.1 as a convention of letters on concord and, from internal evidence and second-century references, places the letter between AD 80 and 140." }, { "author": "Odd Magne Bakke", "work": "'Concord and Peace': A Rhetorical Analysis of the First Letter of Clement", "year": "2001", "view": "Reads the letter as deliberative rhetoric urging concord at Corinth. Its examples, including Peter and Paul, serve that argument." }, { "author": "Andrew F. Gregory", "work": "1 Clement and the Writings that Later Formed the New Testament, in The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers (ed. Gregory and Tuckett)", "year": "2005", "view": "Judges 1 Clement's use of 1 Corinthians secure and assesses its possible use of other New Testament writings case by case." }, { "author": "Thomas J. Herron", "work": "Clement and the Early Church of Rome: On the Dating of Clement's First Epistle to the Corinthians", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues for a date around AD 70, before the temple's destruction." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q10993949", "label": "First Epistle of Clement" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q42887", "label": "Clement of Rome (traditional author)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2724904", "label": "Codex Hierosolymitanus" } ], "title": "《革利免一书》论保罗之死及他写给哥林多的书信", "summary": "按通常的定年（约公元95至97年），由罗马教会寄给哥林多教会的《革利免一书》，是新约以外最早报道保罗生命结局的文本：他经历了监禁、放逐、被石头打，并在统治者面前作见证。它也是最早叫读者回头去读他论哥林多派系问题之书信（《哥林多前书》）的文本。它没有说他死于何地、何时或怎样死的。", "dating": "通常定为约公元95至97年，即图密善统治末期或刚结束之后（Lightfoot：约公元95或96年）。各种主张从约公元70年（Edmundson、Robinson、Herron）到迟至约140年（Welborn所定的外限）不等。现存最古老的抄本见于Codex Alexandrinus（五世纪）。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "一封以罗马教会名义寄出的书信，把彼得和保罗描绘为本世代的“斗士”，他们受到迫害，“竭力相争，以至于死”（《革利免一书》5.1–7）。按通常的定年，一代人之后的罗马教会已把保罗之死当作众所周知的近期历史。", "它概述了保罗的生涯及其结局：七次被捆锁，被放逐，被石头打，在东方和西方传道，到达“西方的尽头”，“在统治者面前”作见证，然后离开世界，“往圣洁之处去”（《革利免一书》5.6–7）。", "它吩咐哥林多信徒“拿起蒙福的保罗的书信”，并回顾他如何责备围绕他自己、彼得和亚波罗结成的派别（《革利免一书》47.1–3）。这与《哥林多前书》1:10–12相符（参《哥林多前书》3:4–6），显示罗马知道这封信，也假定哥林多仍保有它。", "它的苦难清单与保罗自己的列举以及《使徒行传》相合：被石头打（《哥林多后书》11:25；《使徒行传》14:19），屡次下监（《哥林多后书》11:23），以及像《使徒行传》13:50那样被驱逐。它所说的七次监禁多于《使徒行传》所叙述的，因此这份清单并不只是《使徒行传》的摘要。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它没有说出地点、日期、皇帝或死亡方式。罗马是从6.1推断出来的；哥林多的狄奥尼修（约170年，见优西比乌《教会史》2.25.8）把彼得和保罗与罗马相连，说他们曾在意大利教导，并在同一时候殉道。特土良（约200年）暗示是斩首，优西比乌则把它定在尼禄治下的罗马。", "“西方的尽头”本身并不能证明曾有往西班牙的宣教，或在《使徒行传》28章之后获释。许多人把它理解为西班牙（参《罗马书》15:24、28），后来的穆拉托利残篇也说到保罗从罗马前往西班牙（其年代有争议）。另一些人把它理解为罗马，或是修辞上的普世说法；而且这个短语可能源自《罗马书》15章，而非独立的认识。", "这封信没有写出作者的名字，也没有注明自身的日期。把它归于革利免，并定于约95至97年，依据的是二世纪的见证（哥林多的狄奥尼修、赫格西仆、爱任纽）以及从文本所作的推论。" ], "debate": "有三个问题仍在讨论中。日期：大多数学者把这封信定在约95至97年，把“突然而接连发生的灾祸”（1.1）放在图密善统治的背景下解读。Edmundson、Robinson和Herron主张约70年，Welborn则主张公元80至140年这一较宽的时段。地理：Lightfoot认为“西方的尽头”必定指西班牙，这意味着保罗在《使徒行传》28章之后获释。另一些人理解为罗马、修辞上的普世说法，或是对《罗马书》15:24的呼应。细节：“七次被捆锁”保存的是独立的传统，还是惯用的数字？“作了见证”是否已经指殉道，还是只指在审判中作证？许多人也把6.1中“一大群”受害者与塔西佗所描述的尼禄时期的迫害（《编年史》15.44）相连，尽管这封信没有点名任何皇帝。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "早期日期（约公元70年）", "statement": "Edmundson（1913）主张，1.1所说的灾祸符合公元69年的动乱，这封信写于公元70年初。Robinson（1976）和Herron（2008）也为约70年的日期辩护。按这种看法，这份见证距保罗之死只有几年。" }, { "label": "较宽或较晚的时段", "statement": "Welborn（1984；1992）主张，1.1未必是指图密善治下的迫害，因此传统日期没有牢固的锚点。按这种看法，这封信可能写于约公元80至140年间的任何时候，所以它与保罗之死相隔多久并不确定。" }, { "label": "“西方的尽头”指罗马或只是修辞", "statement": "有些人认为保罗死于《使徒行传》28章在罗马的拘禁结束之时。他们把这个短语理解为罗马，即他自己工作范围的西端，或理解为与“全世界”成对的修辞说法。Lightfoot列举了这类读法并予以否定，因为身在罗马的作者很难把罗马称为“极西之地”。" }, { "label": "七是惯用的数字", "statement": "七次监禁这个数字，可能是一份为劝勉和睦而写的典范式苦难清单中的约数或象征性数字，而不是根据记录统计出来的次数。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-first-clement-paul" }, { "id": "second-peter-pauls-letters", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 60, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P72 (P. Bodmer VIII, Vatican Library; 2 Peter 3:11-18 on pp. 35-36)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "2 Peter 3:15-16", "2 Peter 3:1", "2 Peter 1:14", "Colossians 4:16", "1 Thessalonians 5:27", "Galatians 2:9", "Galatians 2:11-14", "Acts 15:7-11", "1 Corinthians 6:2" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.3.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But we have learned that his extant second Epistle does not belong to the canon; yet, as it has appeared profitable to many, it has been used with the other Scriptures.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.25.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Among the disputed writings, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea (quoting Origen, Commentary on John, Book 5)", "work": "Church History, Book VI", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "has left one acknowledged epistle; perhaps also a second, but this is doubtful.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "Eph. 12.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are associates in the mysteries with Paul, who was sanctified, who obtained a good report, who is worthy of all felicitation; in whose foot-steps I would fain be found treading, when I shall attain unto God; who in every letter maketh mention of you in Christ Jesus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 3.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the blessed and glorious Paul, who when he came among you taught face to face with the men of that day the word which concerneth truth carefully and surely; who also, when he was absent, wrote a letter unto you", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "locator": "Phil. 11.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as Paul teacheth?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome (the church at Rome to the church at Corinth)", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1890", "locator": "1 Clem. 47.1-2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/lightfoot/pt1vol2/translation1.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle. What wrote he first unto you in the beginning of the Gospel?", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung, Münster", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (NTVMR), P72", "locator": "docID 10072 (P72; P. Bodmer VIII, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana: 1 Pet 1:1-5:14, 2 Pet 1:1-3:18; P. Bodmer VII, Bibliotheca Bodmeriana: Jude); date III/IV (200-399)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10072&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung, Münster", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (NTVMR), P46", "locator": "docID 10046 (P46; Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, CBL BP II, and Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Library, Inv. 6238; date III (A), 200-225)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata entity: Second Epistle of Peter", "locator": "Q131178", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q131178.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata entity: Papyrus 72", "locator": "Q673569", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q673569.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Michael J. Kruger", "work": "\"The Authenticity of 2 Peter,\" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 42/4", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that the case for pseudonymity is too incomplete to justify the scholarly consensus. On his reading, Paul's letters in 3:16 need mean only the letters known to Peter at the time, and the affectionate yet self-deprecating way Paul is described fits Peter better than a pseudepigrapher." }, { "author": "Richard J. Bauckham", "work": "Jude, 2 Peter (Word Biblical Commentary 50)", "year": "1983", "view": "Treats 2 Peter as pseudepigraphal but holds that the device was not a fraudulent claim to apostolic authority; it claimed to pass on the apostolic message faithfully. He also regards evidence that the Apocalypse of Peter used 2 Peter as ruling out a late date. (View as quoted in Kruger 1999.)" }, { "author": "J. N. D. Kelly", "work": "A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude", "year": "1969", "view": "Regards 2 Peter as pseudonymous and describes that verdict as almost universally held in his day. (As quoted in Kruger 1999.)" }, { "author": "Jörg Frey, Matthijs den Dulk and Jan van der Watt (eds.)", "work": "2 Peter and the Apocalypse of Peter: Towards a New Perspective", "year": "2019", "view": "Frey's lectures argue that 2 Peter depends literarily on the Apocalypse of Peter and read the letter within second-century Christianity. Respondents, including Richard Bauckham, assess the proposal." }, { "author": "Harry Y. Gamble", "work": "The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning", "year": "1985", "view": "States that Hippolytus is the first writer to show any knowledge of 2 Peter (as quoted by Kruger 1999)." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Bibliography-only further reading: the publisher's description says the book uses textual criticism to trace the growth of the Pauline corpus and suggests that Paul himself played a major role in publishing the first collection of his letters. The argument was not checked against the book." }, { "author": "Benjamin P. Laird", "work": "The Pauline Corpus in Early Christianity: Its Formation, Publication, and Circulation", "year": "2022", "view": "Argues that at least three archetypal editions of Paul's letters (10, 13 and 14 letters) were collected and edited as early as the first century. They circulated side by side until 14-letter editions became nearly universal by the fourth century." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q131178", "label": "Second Epistle of Peter" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q673569", "label": "Papyrus 72" } ], "title": "《彼得后书》3:15–16：早期把保罗书信作为一组提及的例子", "summary": "在《彼得后书》3:15–16中，以彼得身份说话的作者称保罗为亲爱的弟兄，把保罗的书信当作读者早已熟悉的一批著作来提及，并隐含地把它们与圣经并列。它是最早显示保罗的数封书信被人一并知晓的见证之一，尽管它没有点出其中任何一封；它的分量取决于一个有争议的日期：若是彼得所写，就在六十年代中期；若是托名之作，则更晚。", "dating": "有争议：若为彼得所写，则在公元六十年代中期；若为托名之作，则在一世纪末至二世纪（上限150年是为各种二世纪主张取的整数）。最早的抄本为P72（三或四世纪）；最早具名提到它并表示怀疑的是奥利金（三世纪，见优西比乌的引述）。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "《彼得后书》3:15–16以复数提到保罗的书信，把它们当作读者早已熟悉的一批著作，而不只是指一封寄给他们的信。这预设了保罗数封书信的抄本已流传到最初收信人之外；保罗自己曾吩咐要把书信念给所有信徒听，并转给邻近的教会（《帖撒罗尼迦前书》5:27；《歌罗西书》4:16），这使这种流传显得合理。", "这段经文隐含地把保罗的书信归入圣经之列；大多数读者这样理解这个短语，不过也有少数人把它理解为泛指其他著作。它说书信中有些内容不易理解，未受教导、心志不稳的读者会扭曲其意；可见在它写成时，对保罗的解释已经有争议。", "它是几份早期见证之一，表明保罗的书信在最初的目的地之外也有人阅读。《革利免一书》第47章叫哥林多回头去看《哥林多前书》。坡旅甲（《致腓立比人书》3.2；11.2）知道保罗曾写信到腓立比，并把《哥林多前书》6:2中的一项教导归于他。伊格那丢（《致以弗所人书》12.2）说保罗在每封信中都提到以弗所人，这一夸张说法暗示他知道好几封书信。", "这段经文现存最早的抄本是P72（P. Bodmer VIII，现藏梵蒂冈图书馆），INTF把它定为三或四世纪；其第35–36页包含《彼得后书》3:11–18。作为对照，P46（INTF定年约200至225年）是一部收有保罗书信和《希伯来书》的早期册子本，其中不含《彼得后书》。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它没有说作者知道保罗的哪些书信，或知道多少封。因此，它不能证明当时已有一部经过编订的书信集、一套固定的十三封或十四封书信，或一部已经封闭的正典。", "它不能断定自身的作者或日期。如果《彼得后书》是托名之作，这段经文显示的就是一位后来的作者如何呈现彼得对保罗的看法，而不是彼得本人的话。", "它完全没有谈到保罗的行旅，也没有为《使徒行传》的行程或年代提供独立的佐证。" ], "debate": "大多数批判学者认为《彼得后书》是托名之作。他们指出：它的文体和词汇与《彼得前书》不同；它与《犹大书》有密切的平行；它早期被接受的过程缓慢而充满疑虑（奥利金的迟疑，以及优西比乌把它列入有争议的书卷）；还有这处把保罗书信当作一组、与圣经并列的提及本身。主张彼得为作者的人回应说，复数只需指作者所知道的那些书信，而那种亲切却坦率的语气也与彼得相称。另一项争议是：《彼得后书》使用了《彼得默示录》，还是被它所使用。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "彼得所写，六十年代中期", "statement": "彼得或许借助一位书记，在尼禄治下去世前不久写成此信。若是这样，这段经文就显示：保罗的书信在写成后几年内已在各教会中被抄写、诵读；而一位曾与保罗发生冲突（《加拉太书》2:11–14）、却也认可向外族人宣教（《加拉太书》2:9；《使徒行传》15:7–11）的使徒，在此称许他。" }, { "label": "托名之作，使徒时代之后", "statement": "一位后来的作者借用彼得的名字，把这封信呈现为彼得的第二封信和临别遗言（《彼得后书》3:1；《彼得后书》1:14）。这样，这段经文就见证：在使徒之后的那一代，保罗的数封书信已具有权威地位，同时也见证人们记忆中彼得与保罗彼此一致的形象。" }, { "label": "二世纪，晚于《彼得默示录》", "statement": "Jörg Frey主张《彼得后书》依赖《彼得默示录》。这会把这封信定在进入二世纪相当一段时间之后，因此它所见证的是保罗书信在那个时期如何被看待，而不是在使徒时代。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-second-peter-pauls-letters" }, { "id": "ignatius-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 105, "dateTo": 150, "corpusReferences": [ "CPG 1025.1 (Ignatius, Ad Ephesios)" ], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 9:15", "Acts 10:41", "Acts 19:1-41", "Acts 20:17-38", "Acts 28:14-31", "Romans 1:7-15", "1 Corinthians 1:18-20", "1 Corinthians 4:13", "1 Corinthians 6:9-10", "1 Corinthians 15:8-9", "1 Corinthians 15:32", "1 Corinthians 16:8", "Ephesians 1:1", "1 Timothy 1:3", "2 Timothy 1:18", "2 Timothy 4:12" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.rome", "place.antioch", "place.syria" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are associates in the mysteries with Paul, who was sanctified, who obtained a good report, who is worthy of all felicitation; in whose foot-steps I would fain be found treading, when I shall attain unto God; who in every letter maketh mention of you in Christ Jesus.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Romans", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I do not enjoin you, as Peter and Paul did. They were Apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am a slave to this very hour.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Romans", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 9.2 (echo of 1 Cor 15:8-9)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But for myself I am ashamed to be called one of them; for neither am I worthy, being the very last of them and an untimely birth: but I have found mercy that I should be some one, if so be I shall attain unto God.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 18.1 (echo of 1 Cor 1:18-20; 4:13)", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "My spirit is made an offscouring for the Cross, which is a stumbling-block to them that are unbelievers, but to us salvation and life eternal.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-lightfoot", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Smyrnaeans", "locator": "Ign. Smyrn. 3.3", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And after His resurrection He [both] ate with them and drank with them as one in the flesh", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer", "year": "1891" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians, shorter (middle) recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12 (shorter version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.ii.xii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Ye are initiated into the mysteries of the Gospel with Paul, the holy, the martyred, the deservedly most happy, at whose feet", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (long recension, 4th-century revision)", "work": "Epistle to the Ephesians, longer recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Eph. 12 (longer version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.ii.xii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "with Paul, the holy, the martyred, inasmuch as he was “a chosen vessel;”", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (Syriac abridgment)", "work": "Epistle to the Romans, Syriac version, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4 (Syriac version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.xii.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I do not, like Peter and Paul, issue orders unto you.", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "Ignatius of Antioch (long recension, 4th-century revision)", "work": "Epistle to the Romans, longer recension, ANF 1", "locator": "Ign. Rom. 4 (longer version)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.v.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "They were apostles of Jesus Christ, but I am the very least [of believers]:", "role": "edition", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "ignatius-anf", "author": "ANF editors (A. Roberts, J. Donaldson; A. C. Coxe)", "work": "Introductory Note to the Epistles of Ignatius, ANF 1", "locator": "ANF 1, Introductory Note to the Epistles of Ignatius", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of the seven Epistles which are acknowledged by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., iii. 36), we possess two Greek recensions, a shorter and a longer. It is plain that one or other of these exhibits a corrupt text", "role": "early-study", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Ecclesiastical History", "locator": "HE 3.36.10", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And when he had left Smyrna he wrote again from Troas to the Philadelphians and to the church of Smyrna; and particularly to Polycarp, who presided over the latter church.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp of Smyrna", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "locator": "Pol. Phil. 13.2", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The letters of Ignatius which were sent to us by him, and others as many as we had by us, we send unto you, according as ye gave charge; the which are subjoined to this letter; from which ye will be able to gain great advantage.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus of Lyons", "work": "Against Heresies", "locator": "Haer. 5.28.4 (quoting Ign. Rom. 4.1)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103528.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As a certain man of ours said, when he was condemned to the wild beasts because of his testimony with respect to God: I am the wheat of Christ, and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of God.", "role": "primary-text", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians", "locator": "Q65051525 (P7988 CPG 1025.1)", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q65051525.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Letters of Ignatius", "locator": "Q350126", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q350126.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Theodor Zahn", "work": "Ignatius von Antiochien", "year": "1873", "view": "Defended the authenticity of the seven letters in the middle recension. Schoedel credits Zahn and Lightfoot as the basis of today's majority view." }, { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "The Apostolic Fathers, Part II: S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp", "year": "1885 (2nd ed. 1889)", "view": "Defended the middle recension as Ignatius's genuine letters, treating the long recension as a later expansion and the Syriac as an abridgment. The 1891 Lightfoot-Harmer translation quoted here derives from this edition." }, { "author": "William Cureton", "work": "The Ancient Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans", "year": "1845", "view": "Argued that the three abridged Syriac letters come closest to what Ignatius actually wrote. Later scholarship has largely rejected this." }, { "author": "Robert Joly", "work": "Le dossier d'Ignace d'Antioche", "year": "1979", "view": "Disputes the authenticity of the seven letters, treating them as a later composition. This is the main modern minority position, and Schoedel cites it." }, { "author": "William R. Schoedel", "work": "Ignatius of Antioch: A Commentary on the Letters of Ignatius of Antioch (Hermeneia)", "year": "1985", "view": "Standard critical commentary. It accepts the middle recension as Ignatius's own work and reads it against his journey under guard from Syria to Rome." }, { "author": "William R. Schoedel", "work": "\"Ignatius, Epistles of,\" Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 3", "year": "1992", "view": "The middle recension is generally accepted as authentic. The long recension is a fourth-century revision with added spurious letters, and the Syriac 'short recension' is only an abridgment. The letters fit the second half of Trajan's reign or a little later." }, { "author": "Paul Foster", "work": "\"The Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch and the Writings that later formed the New Testament,\" in A. F. Gregory and C. M. Tuckett (eds.), The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers", "year": "2005", "view": "Assesses, writing by writing, which texts later in the New Testament Ignatius knew." }, { "author": "Timothy D. Barnes", "work": "The Date of Ignatius (The Expository Times 120)", "year": "2008", "view": "Argues that Ignatius knew the writings of the Gnostic teacher Ptolemaeus and that the letters were probably written in the 140s, treating Eusebius's placement of Ignatius under Trajan as not authoritative." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q44170", "label": "Ignatius of Antioch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q350126", "label": "Letters of Ignatius" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q65051525", "label": "Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7811305", "label": "Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans" } ], "title": "安提阿的伊格那丢书信中的保罗", "summary": "安提阿的伊格那丢留下的书信，通常定于约公元110年，是他在被押解前往罗马途中写成的。这些书信显示，保罗很早就以使徒和书信作者的身份受到尊崇，但没有为他的生平事业提供新的史实。伊格那丢在《致以弗所人书》12.2中称以弗所人为保罗的同参奥秘者，说保罗“在每一封信中”都提到他们。在《致罗马人书》4.3中，他把有权发令的使徒彼得和保罗与自己这个被定罪的人相对照。", "dating": "通常定于约公元105至117年（图拉真统治后期）或稍晚；Barnes（2008）主张140年代。dateFrom与dateTo只涵盖书信为真作的观点；按伪作假说，这些书信要定在二世纪更晚的时候。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "在多数学者接受的中篇校订本中，伊格那丢称保罗为成圣的、“配得一切称福”的人，盼望自己能被人见到踏着他的脚踪而行，又说保罗“在每一封信中”都提到以弗所人（伊格那丢《致以弗所人书》12.2）。由此可见，一位叙利亚主教当时已经知道保罗是与以弗所关系密切的书信作者；按通常的读法，他也知道保罗写过多封书信。", "伊格那丢《致罗马人书》4.3把彼得和保罗并提，称他们是可以向罗马教会发出命令的使徒；伊格那丢身为被定罪的囚犯，则不肯这样做。这段文字见于现存全部三种文本形式：叙利亚文节本、中篇校订本和长篇校订本。", "伊格那丢沿用了哥林多前书的措辞。《致以弗所人书》18.1呼应哥林多前书1:18-20和4:13；《致罗马人书》9.2称自己为“最末的一个”和“不足月而生的”，呼应哥林多前书15:8-9；《致以弗所人书》16.1和《致非拉铁非人书》3.3呼应哥林多前书6:9-10。综合来看，哥林多前书是他所知的保罗书信中最明确的一例。", "这些书信本身很早就有外部见证。坡旅甲（《致腓立比人书》13.2）提到收集并转寄伊格那丢的书信。爱任纽（《驳异端》5.28.4）引用伊格那丢《致罗马人书》4.1而未提其名，优西比乌（《教会史》3.36.12）则把这段引文归于伊格那丢。优西比乌在《教会史》3.36.5-10中列出了构成中篇校订本的七封书信。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能独立验证使徒行传。伊格那丢从未明确引用使徒行传。最接近的平行是《致士每拿人书》3.3与使徒行传10:41，可能出自共同的传统，不能表明他读过使徒行传。“蒙拣选的器皿”一语（使徒行传9:15）只在四世纪的长篇校订本中才进入《致以弗所人书》第12章。他笔下保罗与以弗所的关系，并不是使徒行传19至20章的另一份独立见证。", "“在每一封信中”不能按字面理解，因为归于保罗的书信中只有部分提到以弗所（例如哥林多前书15:32；16:8；提摩太前书1:3；提摩太后书1:18；4:12）。这句话不能表明伊格那丢手头有多少封保罗书信、是哪几封，也不能解决以弗所书1:1原本是否写明以弗所。", "《致罗马人书》4.3没有说彼得和保罗死在罗马或创立了罗马教会，也没有说他们发过什么命令；这些都是后来的推论和传统。《致以弗所人书》12.2中有一个词，Lightfoot译作“得了好见证的”，Roberts-Donaldson译本却作“殉道的”，因此它不是保罗殉道的可靠证据。" ], "debate": "多数学者追随Zahn和Lightfoot，接受由七封书信组成的中篇校订本为真作，并把它定在图拉真统治后期或稍晚；Barnes主张140年代。少数学者，尤其是Joly，视这些书信为后来的伪作。关于《致以弗所人书》12.2，读者的疑问是：“在每一封信中”是夸张之词，是指“在整封信中处处”，还是反映了一部已知的保罗书信集；形容保罗的那个词是指“有充分见证的”还是“殉道的”；以及除哥林多前书之外，伊格那丢实际用过多少封书信。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "后来的伪作", "statement": "这七封书信是二世纪较晚时期托名写成的作品（Joly 1979年的论述最为知名）。按此观点，《致以弗所人书》12.2和《致罗马人书》4.3仍显示二世纪的人怎样记念保罗，但它们不再是他死后一两代人之内的见证。" }, { "label": "修辞夸张与有限的认识", "statement": "“在每一封信中”是修辞上的夸张，伊格那丢所知的可能只比哥林多前书多一点。有些听来像保罗的语句，可能来自教会的口头传统，而不是来自阅读成文的书信。" }, { "label": "以叙利亚文短本为原貌", "statement": "Cureton（1845）主张，只有三封经过删节的叙利亚文书信是真作。叙利亚文本的《致以弗所人书》没有第12章，因此按他的观点，“在每一封信中”这段话就不是伊格那丢本人的话。后来多数学者认为叙利亚文本是中篇校订本的节本。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-ignatius-paul" }, { "id": "muratorian-fragment", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 170, "dateTo": 400, "corpusReferences": [ "CLA III 352" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 1:1-2", "Colossians 4:14", "Colossians 4:16", "Romans 15:24-28", "1 Corinthians 1:10-12", "Galatians 5:2-6", "1 Timothy 1:1-2", "2 Timothy 1:1-2", "Titus 1:1-4", "Philemon 1:1-3" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.timothy", "person.titus", "person.philemon", "person.peter" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.spain", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.philippi", "place.colossae", "place.galatia", "place.thessalonica" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 3, on Philemon, Titus and Timothy (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy, in simple personal affection and love indeed; but yet these are hallowed in the esteem of the Catholic Church, and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 3, on Laodiceans and Alexandrians (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion; and there are also several others which cannot be received into the Catholic Church", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 2, on Acts and Theophilus (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover, the Acts of all the Apostles are comprised by Luke in one book, and addressed to the most excellent Theophilus, because these different events took place when he was present himself", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 2, on Peter's passion and Paul's journey to Spain (ANF 5:603)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "by the omission of the passion of Peter, and also of the journey of Paul, when he went from the city—Rome—to Spain.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "Anonymous (Muratorian Fragment)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "work": "Canon Muratorianus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5 (printed among the Fragments of Caius)", "year": "1886", "locator": "Canon Muratorianus 4 (ANF 5:604)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/caius/fragments/anf05.v.iii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Pastor, moreover, did Hermas write very recently in our times in the city of Rome, while his brother bishop Pius sat in the chair of the Church of Rome.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "author": "ANF vol. 5 editors (editorial headnote)", "work": "Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 5, note to 'Canon Muratorianus'", "year": "1886", "locator": "ANF 5:603, headnote (CCEL note 4977)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/caius/fragments/anf05.v.iii.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "was discovered by Muratori in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and published by him in his Antiquitates Italicæ in 1740. This manuscript belongs to the seventh or eighth century.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "work": "Against Marcion, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "work": "Against Marcion, in Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.17", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We have it on the true tradition of the Church, that this epistle was sent to the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans. Marcion, however, was very desirous of giving it the new title (of Laodicean), as if he were extremely accurate in investigating such a point.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Muratorian fragment", "locator": "Q692665", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q692665.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Albert C. Sundberg Jr.", "work": "Canon Muratori: A Fourth Century List (Harvard Theological Review 66)", "year": "1973", "view": "Dates the list to the 4th century and places its origin in the East rather than Rome." }, { "author": "Everett Ferguson", "work": "Canon Muratori: Date and Provenance (Studia Patristica 17)", "year": "1982", "view": "Answers Sundberg. Argues that the absence of Hebrews, the 2nd-century heresies named and other features point to a western, late-2nd-century setting." }, { "author": "Geoffrey Mark Hahneman", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon", "year": "1992", "view": "Builds out Sundberg's case and dates the list c. 375, with a Syrian or Palestinian provenance." }, { "author": "Charles E. Hill", "work": "The Debate over the Muratorian Fragment and the Development of the Canon (Westminster Theological Journal 57)", "year": "1995", "view": "Rebuts Hahneman's reasons for setting aside the fragment's own claim about Hermas and Pius, and favours the earlier date." }, { "author": "Joseph Verheyden", "work": "The Canon Muratori: A Matter of Dispute (in The Biblical Canons, BETL 163)", "year": "2003", "view": "Finds none of the Sundberg-Hahneman arguments for a 4th-century eastern origin convincing. Places the author in the West at the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century." }, { "author": "Lee Martin McDonald", "work": "The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority", "year": "2007", "view": "Leans toward Sundberg and Hahneman and favours a date after the mid-4th century in the East, while cautioning that this cannot be insisted on." }, { "author": "Eckhard J. Schnabel", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment: The State of Research (Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 57)", "year": "2014", "view": "Surveys the research, judges the case for a 4th-century date unconvincing, and treats the fragment as written c. 200." }, { "author": "Clare K. Rothschild", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment as Roman Fake (Novum Testamentum 60)", "year": "2018", "view": "Argues that the fragment is a late-antique forgery made to look as if it came from the 2nd century." }, { "author": "Christophe Guignard", "work": "The Muratorian Fragment as a Late Antique Fake? An Answer to C. K. Rothschild (Revue des sciences religieuses 93)", "year": "2019", "view": "Rejects the forgery thesis. Holds that the fragment most likely dates from the second half of the 2nd century, or at the latest the early 3rd." }, { "author": "Johann Peter Kirsch", "work": "Muratorian Canon, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 10", "year": "1911", "view": "Says the codex came from Bobbio and is now in the Ambrosiana (Cod. J 101 sup.), dates it to the 8th century, places the text at Rome c. 180-200, probably translated from Greek, and notes that a few sentences survive in Monte Cassino codices of Paul's letters." }, { "author": "E. A. Lowe", "work": "Codices Latini Antiquiores, Part III: Italy, Ancona-Novara", "year": "1938", "view": "Catalogues the Milan codex as CLA III 352: a mid-8th-century uncial, probably written at Bobbio." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q692665", "label": "Muratorian fragment" } ], "title": "穆拉托利残篇中的保罗书信目录", "summary": "穆拉托利残篇是一份拉丁文的新约书卷目录，通常定于约170至200年（也有人主张四世纪）。它接纳十三封保罗书信，包括腓利门书、提多书和两封致提摩太的书信，并把“致老底嘉人”和“致亚历山太人”的书信斥为伪作。它的全文只见于米兰一份八世纪中叶的抄本。它显示的是保罗书信怎样被接纳，而不是谁写了这些书信。", "dating": "文本大概写成于二世纪末（约170至200年，最迟三世纪初）。少数学者定为四世纪，近来也有一种论点认为它是古代晚期的伪作。dateTo 400涵盖四世纪的观点，但不涵盖伪作论。唯一的完整抄本属八世纪中叶（Lowe，CLA III 352：“VIII med”）。", "currentLocation": "米兰安波罗修图书馆（I 101 sup.，亦引作J 101 sup.）", "establishes": [ "现存文本接纳十三封以保罗为名的书信：其中有写给七个教会的书信（哥林多人、以弗所人、腓立比人、歌罗西人、加拉太人、帖撒罗尼迦人、罗马人），致哥林多人和致帖撒罗尼迦人的书信又各有第二封，另有致腓利门、致提多的书信各一封，以及致提摩太的书信两封。残篇暗含这个总数，却从未明言，也没有提到希伯来书。", "它把致腓利门、提多和提摩太的书信描述为私人书信，但大公（即普世）教会仍视之为神圣，并用于教会纪律。它把“致老底嘉人”和“致亚历山太人”的书信斥为与马吉安异端有关、假托保罗之名伪造的作品。可见作者在公认的保罗书信与托名书信之间划了一条界线。", "它把“众使徒的行传”归于路加，即保罗带在身边作同伴的那位医生，并说此书是写给提阿非罗的。它解释使徒行传为何对彼得之死和保罗从罗马往西班牙的旅程只字不提：它声称，路加只记录了他亲眼目睹的事。", "唯一的完整抄本是一部八世纪的拉丁文安色尔体抄本，原属博比奥图书馆，现藏米兰安波罗修图书馆。Lowe的CLA判定它属八世纪中叶，可能写于博比奥。穆拉托利于1740年将它刊布（ANF题注）。卡西诺山的保罗书信抄本中也保存了其中几句。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它显示的是：在这份目录有争议的年代和地点，其作者及所属群体接纳哪些书信为保罗所写。它本身不能解决教牧书信或其他任何有争议书信的作者问题。", "它说保罗从罗马去了西班牙，这记录的是作者所持的一种看法，用来解释使徒行传为何这样结尾。它不是这次旅程确曾发生的独立证据。", "它不是一世纪的见证，其年代和来源又有争议，因此不能证明公元200年时正典已经封闭。它的历史说法也很程式化：它说保罗跟随“他的前任约翰”，写信给七个教会，这并不是可靠的年代顺序。" ], "debate": "二世纪末的年代主要基于两点：一是残篇声称，黑马是“就在最近，在我们的时代”，在二世纪中叶的罗马主教庇护任内写成《牧人书》的；二是目录所拒斥的群体（马吉安、瓦伦廷、孟他努派）。Sundberg（1973）和Hahneman（1992）主张这是四世纪的东方目录，Rothschild（2018）则主张它是古代晚期的伪作。Ferguson、Hill、Verheyden、Schnabel和Guignard回应说，约200年的西方背景最为吻合。Schnabel 2014年的综述认为，对Hahneman的回应大多是批评性的。1886年的ANF译本译作“针对马吉安异端而写”的那个短语，更常被理解为“为支持马吉安异端而伪造”。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "四世纪的东方目录", "statement": "Sundberg和Hahneman对“就在最近，在我们的时代”作宽松理解，把这份文本与四世纪的正典目录归为一类。Hahneman把它定在约375年的叙利亚或巴勒斯坦。按此观点，这份目录显示的是四世纪而非二世纪对同样十三封保罗书信的接纳。" }, { "label": "古代晚期的伪作", "statement": "Rothschild认为，这份目录写成较晚，却被刻意做得像早期作品，因此其中提到庇护只是一种文学手法。Guignard回应说，阿奎莱亚的Chromatius（卒于407年）用过这份文本，而且希腊文原本很难与晚期西方伪作之说相容。" }, { "label": "被拒斥书信的身份", "statement": "有人认为，被拒斥的“老底嘉人书”就是马吉安给教会所称的以弗所书所起的标题（特土良，《驳马吉安》5.17）。也有人认为是另一封托名书信，例如后来拉丁文圣经中那篇简短的拉丁文《致老底嘉人书》。“致亚历山太人”的书信则不为人知，把它等同于希伯来书只是揣测。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-muratorian-fragment" }, { "id": "dionysius-gaius-martyrdom", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 165, "dateTo": 326, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 18:1-11", "Acts 22:25-28", "Acts 28:16", "Acts 28:30-31", "1 Corinthians 1:12", "1 Corinthians 3:6-10", "1 Corinthians 4:15", "Romans 1:13", "Romans 15:20-23", "Romans 15:24-28", "Philippians 1:25-26", "Philippians 2:24", "Philemon 1:22", "2 Timothy 4:6-8", "2 Timothy 4:16-18" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.peter", "person.nero" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth", "place.italia", "place.spain" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.6-7", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But I can show the trophies of the apostles. For if you will go to the Vatican or to the Ostian way, you will find the trophies of those who laid the foundations of this church.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.8", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For both of them planted and likewise taught us in our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.25.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 2.22.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Thus after he had made his defense it is said that the apostle was sent again upon the ministry of preaching, and that upon coming to the same city a second time he suffered martyrdom.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.23.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There is extant also another epistle written by Dionysius to the Romans, and addressed to Soter, who was bishop at that time.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius of Caesarea", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.20.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There has reached us also a dialogue of Caius, a very learned man, which was held at Rome under Zephyrinus, with Proclus, who contended for the Phrygian heresy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, on Peter and Paul", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, on the apostle John", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-prescription-anf", "author": "ANF editors", "work": "The Prescription against Heretics, ANF vol. 3, footnote", "year": "1885", "locator": "Praescr. 36, ANF footnote on 'a death like John's' (CCEL note 2235)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.xxxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Baptist’s.", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.22.2 (CCEL footnote 474), opening", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Eusebius is the first writer to record the release of Paul from a first, and his martyrdom during a second Roman imprisonment.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.22.2 (CCEL footnote 474), on the second imprisonment", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxiii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Scholars are greatly divided as to the fact of a second imprisonment. Nearly all that defend the genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles assume a second imprisonment", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.25.8 (CCEL footnote 555)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Whatever may be the truth of Dionysius’ report as to Peter’s martyrdom at Rome, he is almost certainly in error in speaking as he does of Peter’s work in Corinth.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "work": "Church History of Eusebius, NPNF2 vol. 1, notes", "year": "1890", "locator": "Note on HE 2.25.8 (CCEL footnote 556)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vii.xxvi.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "allows some margin in time and does not necessarily imply the same day. Dionysius is the first one to connect the deaths of Peter and Paul chronologically, but later it became quite the custom.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "De bapt. 17", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But if the writings which wrongly go under Paul's name, claim Thecla's example as a licence for women's teaching and baptizing, let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "first-clement-lightfoot", "author": "Clement of Rome", "work": "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "1 Clem. 5", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Caius (early 3rd-century Christian author)", "locator": "Q2441699", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2441699.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "pleiades", "work": "Pleiades place record: Via Ostiensis", "locator": "390205932", "url": "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/390205932/json", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Brent D. Shaw", "work": "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution (Journal of Roman Studies 105)", "year": "2015", "view": "Disputes the conventional view that a state persecution under Nero after the fire of 64 included the deaths of Peter and Paul. He takes the Tacitus passage to be probably genuine but argues it reflects the ideas of Tacitus's own day." }, { "author": "Christopher P. Jones", "work": "The Historicity of the Neronian Persecution: A Response to Brent Shaw (New Testament Studies 63)", "year": "2017", "view": "Argues that there are no grounds for doubting Tacitus's report of the persecution. He notes that the later sources dating the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul to Nero's reign have no bearing on whether Tacitus is accurate." }, { "author": "Otto Zwierlein", "work": "Petrus in Rom: Die literarischen Zeugnisse", "year": "2009", "view": "Argues that the literary evidence does not show Peter was ever in Rome, martyred or buried there. He treats the Roman Peter tradition, including its pairing of Peter with Paul, as a second-century development." }, { "author": "Oscar Cullmann", "work": "Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (German original 1952)", "year": "1953", "view": "Judges Peter's journey to Rome and martyrdom there under Nero probable from the literary evidence, but holds that the Vatican excavations do not settle where his grave was." }, { "author": "J. M. C. Toynbee and J. B. Ward-Perkins", "work": "The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations", "year": "1956", "view": "Describe the Vatican excavations and identify the modest mid-second-century shrine under St Peter's with the Vatican 'trophy' Gaius mentions." }, { "author": "Sean McDowell", "work": "The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus", "year": "2015", "view": "Assesses the martyrdom traditions apostle by apostle. Finds very good historical reason to think Paul died as a martyr in the mid-to-late 60s, and judges his beheading more probable than not but less certain." }, { "author": "M. R. James", "work": "The Apocryphal New Testament", "year": "1924", "view": "Translates the Martyrdom of Paul from the Acts of Paul, in which Nero orders Paul beheaded." }, { "author": "John Chapman", "work": "St. Dionysius, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 5", "year": "1909", "view": "Dates Dionysius of Corinth about 170, because he wrote to Pope Soter, whom it dates c. 168-176 (noting Harnack's 165-67 to 173-5)." }, { "author": "John Chapman", "work": "Tertullian, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 14", "year": "1912", "view": "Dates the Prescription against Heretics to about 200." }, { "author": "Francis Joseph Bacchus", "work": "Eusebius of Caesarea, The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 5", "year": "1909", "view": "Holds that the Church History grew in stages: the ninth book was finished between 312 and 314, and the tenth was completed between the defeat of Licinius in 323 and the disgrace of Crispus in 326." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q679837", "label": "Dionysius of Corinth" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2441699", "label": "Caius (Gaius), early 3rd-century Christian author" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1235854", "label": "Church History (Eusebius)" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q142999", "label": "Eusebius of Caesarea" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q174929", "label": "Tertullian" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "423025", "label": "Roma" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "570182", "label": "Corinthus/Korinthos" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "463398874", "label": "Vaticanus Mons" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "390205932", "label": "Via Ostiensis" } ], "title": "狄奥尼修斯、盖乌斯与特土良论保罗死于罗马", "summary": "保罗在罗马被处决一事，依据的是教会传统，而不是使徒行传；使徒行传在他的审判有结果之前就结束了。哥林多的狄奥尼修斯（约170年）说彼得和保罗大约同时殉道。罗马的盖乌斯（约200年）指出使徒们在梵蒂冈和奥斯提亚大道上的“胜利纪念物”，特土良（约200年）则暗示他被斩首。更早的主要见证《革利免一书》第5章（通常定于约96年）没有提到地点。优西比乌（四世纪初）是第一个明确说出获释和第二次被囚的人。", "dating": "狄奥尼修斯约公元170年（在索特任主教时写信给罗马教会）；盖乌斯和特土良约公元200年；优西比乌的《教会史》分阶段编成，完成于320年代。狄奥尼修斯和盖乌斯的话只以优西比乌书中引文的形式留存。", "currentLocation": "文本传统", "establishes": [ "哥林多主教狄奥尼修斯在索特任主教期间（约公元170年）写信给罗马教会。他说彼得和保罗在哥林多栽种、教导，又一同在意大利教导，并“在同一时候”殉道（《教会史》2.25.8；此信的年代见4.23.9）。McGiffert指出，这个希腊文短语在时间上留有一些余地，不一定指同一天。", "盖乌斯是约公元200年泽菲林任主教时活跃于罗马的教会人士。他在与孟他努派（“弗吕家异端”）的普罗克洛辩论时说，他能指出使徒们在梵蒂冈和奥斯提亚大道上的“胜利纪念物”（《教会史》2.25.6-7；6.20.3）。可见到约公元200年，罗马教会已把使徒们与两处具体的纪念地联系起来。", "特土良《论异端的法规》36（约公元200年）说，保罗在罗马“以如同约翰那样的死”得了冠冕；ANF的编者注明这是指施洗的约翰，也就是斩首。同一句话还说使徒约翰被投入滚油中却毫发无伤，因此这是罗马的传统，而非经过查证的事实。保罗的罗马公民身份（使徒行传22:25-28）也会让人预期他被斩首，所以这个细节可能是推论出来的。", "优西比乌在记述尼禄的逼迫时，明言保罗在罗马被斩首（《教会史》2.25.5）。他也记载保罗在申辩后获释，第二次到罗马时殉道（2.22.2-8）；他以“据说”引出此事，并根据提摩太后书4章加以论证。McGiffert（1890）认为他是第一位明确记载此事的作者。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这些见证都没有交代罪名、审判或行刑地点；除了把他的死与彼得或尼禄联系起来之外，也都没有为他的死定年。狄奥尼修斯和盖乌斯的话只以优西比乌所选的摘录传到我们手中。特土良知道一部关于保罗与特克拉的作品，并斥之为伪作；这部作品通常被认为就是《保罗行传》，其中的《殉道记》也说尼禄把保罗斩首。因此不能排除二者出于共同的传统。", "盖乌斯没有说这些“胜利纪念物”是坟墓，也没有说哪一处属于哪一位使徒。把它们解读为埋葬之处，是优西比乌的诠释。把奥斯提亚大道归于保罗，出自罗马的传统，而不是盖乌斯的原话。", "优西比乌之前没有任何作者明确说出获释与第二次被囚，不过《革利免一书》第5章（“西方的尽头”）和穆拉托利残篇所说的西班牙之行，可能暗示使徒行传28章之后还有工作。这一重建依赖于提摩太后书是保罗所写、并写于使徒行传的记述之后，而这两点都有争议。", "狄奥尼修斯并非每个细节都可靠。他说彼得和保罗一同栽种了哥林多和罗马的教会，这与使徒行传18:1-11以及保罗自己的书信（哥林多前书3:6-10；4:15；罗马书1:13；15:20-23）难以相合。McGiffert认为，这个传统中关于哥林多的部分，大概部分源于哥林多前书1:12所说的彼得一派。" ], "debate": "多数历史学家接受保罗死于罗马。悬而未决的问题是，每项见证各自独立提供了多少信息。盖乌斯所说的“胜利纪念物”可能标示坟墓，也可能标示行刑之处。获释与第二次被囚之说能否成立，很大程度上取决于提摩太后书是否为保罗本人的书信、写于使徒行传的记述之后，而许多学者对此存疑。Brent Shaw质疑彼得和保罗死于尼禄治下的一场逼迫。Christopher Jones则为塔西佗关于那场逼迫的记载辩护。Otto Zwierlein质疑彼得是否到过罗马，这会影响狄奥尼修斯关于二人一同殉道的说法。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "获释、继续宣教、死于尼禄治下", "statement": "保罗在使徒行传28:30-31所说的两年之后获释，继续工作，或许在东方，或许在西班牙（罗马书15:24、28），后来再次被捕，并于60年代中期在尼禄治下被处决。这是优西比乌的说法，通常为接受提摩太后书是保罗所写的人所持。如果腓立比书和腓利门书写于罗马的拘押期间，保罗在其中是预期获释的（腓立比书1:25-26；2:24；腓利门书1:22）。" }, { "label": "在罗马的唯一一次拘押以死告终", "statement": "按此观点，保罗从未获释。使徒行传28章所描述的拘押以他被处决告终，第二次被囚是从教牧书信推论出来的。McGiffert（1890）已经指出，否认教牧书信真实性的学者，多数也否认有第二次被囚。" }, { "label": "死于罗马，但并无尼禄的逼迫", "statement": "Brent Shaw认为，塔西佗关于尼禄逼迫基督徒的记述，反映的是塔西佗自己那个时代的观念。若是如此，使徒们的死与尼禄之间的关联，可能是后来建构出来的。Christopher Jones回应说，没有理由怀疑塔西佗的记载。" }, { "label": "彼得在罗马殉道是后来的建构", "statement": "Otto Zwierlein认为彼得从未到过罗马。他把彼得与保罗并提的传统（包括狄奥尼修斯的书信）视为二世纪的文学发展。这对二人一同殉道之说的影响，大于对保罗死于罗马之说的影响，因为使徒行传本身就把保罗带到了那里。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-dionysius-gaius-martyrdom" }, { "id": "papyrus-46", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 175, "dateTo": 250, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P46", "INTF Liste docID 10046", "Chester Beatty Library BP II", "University of Michigan Library inv. 6238" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 15:33", "Romans 14:24-26", "Romans 16:1-23", "Ephesians 1:1", "1 Thessalonians 5:23-28" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.phoebe", "person.priscilla", "person.aquila" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.galatia", "place.philippi", "place.colossae", "place.thessalonica", "place.cenchreae", "place.egypt" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF NTVMR, page-level record)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (INTF docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "chester-beatty-library", "work": "Chester Beatty online exhibition page: New Testament (label for the Pauline Epistles leaf)", "locator": "CBL BP II f.61", "url": "https://chesterbeatty.ie/exhibitions/fragments/new-testament/", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript record: P46", "locator": "GA P46", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P46", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 20r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=210&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 21v", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=240&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 75r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.14.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He says that the Epistle to the Hebrews is the work of Paul, and that it was written to the Hebrews in the Hebrew language; but that Luke translated it carefully and published it for the Greeks", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.20.3", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He mentions only thirteen epistles of the holy apostle, not counting that to the Hebrews with the others. And unto our day there are some among the Romans who do not consider this a work of the apostle.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Papyrus 46", "locator": "Q1513469", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513469", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Frederic G. Kenyon", "work": "The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, Fasciculus III Supplement: Pauline Epistles", "year": "1936", "view": "Edited the Chester Beatty leaves and dated the codex to the early third century (the first half of that century). Using its page numbering, he reconstructed it as a single-quire codex and judged that the lost final leaves were too few to hold the Pastoral Letters." }, { "author": "Henry A. Sanders", "work": "A Third-Century Papyrus Codex of the Epistles of Paul", "year": "1935", "view": "Edited the University of Michigan leaves and, as the title states, dated the codex to the third century." }, { "author": "Young Kyu Kim", "work": "Palaeographical Dating of P⁴⁶ to the Later First Century (Biblica 69)", "year": "1988", "view": "Argued from comparative handwriting that the codex was copied in the later first century. Most palaeographers have not accepted this." }, { "author": "Bruce W. Griffin", "work": "The Paleographical Dating of P-46", "year": "1996", "view": "Rejected Kim's first-century date and argued for a range of roughly AD 175-225." }, { "author": "Philip W. Comfort and David P. Barrett", "work": "The Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts", "year": "2001", "view": "Favoured an earlier date, around the middle of the second century." }, { "author": "Pasquale Orsini and Willy Clarysse", "work": "Early New Testament Manuscripts and Their Dates: A Critique of Theological Palaeography (Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 88)", "year": "2012", "view": "Argued that several early New Testament papyri had been dated too early and proposed more cautious ranges. They placed this codex in the early third century, in line with the INTF catalogue." }, { "author": "Jeremy Duff", "work": "P⁴⁶ and the Pastorals: A Misleading Consensus? (New Testament Studies 44)", "year": "1998", "view": "Argued that the scribe was fitting more text onto later pages and could have added leaves, so the codex may have been planned to include the Pastoral Letters." }, { "author": "T. W. Manson", "work": "St. Paul's Letter to the Romans - and Others", "year": "1948", "view": "Used the papyrus's placing of the doxology after Romans 15 to argue that a fifteen-chapter form went to Rome and that chapter 16 belonged to a copy sent to Ephesus." }, { "author": "Harry Y. Gamble", "work": "The Textual History of the Letter to the Romans", "year": "1977", "view": "Argued that the sixteen-chapter letter is original and the shorter forms are secondary, treating the doxology as a later addition." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1513469", "label": "Papyrus 46" } ], "title": "纸草抄本46（P46）：最早的大型保罗书信抄本", "summary": "P46是最早的大型保罗书信抄本：一部来自埃及的希腊文纸草抄本，存86叶，年代约为公元200年，现分藏于都柏林和安娜堡。它显示罗马书、希伯来书、哥林多前书、哥林多后书、以弗所书、加拉太书、腓立比书、歌罗西书和帖撒罗尼迦前书被合抄成一本书。它的年代依据字迹判定，仍有争议；由于部分叶片已经佚失，它是否曾包含帖撒罗尼迦后书、腓利门书或教牧书信，仍无定论。", "dating": "约公元200年，仅凭字迹定年。INTF定为三世纪初（200至225年），CSNTM定为二世纪末或三世纪初（约200年），切斯特．贝蒂图书馆的一张展品标签则作公元三世纪。已发表的各种主张，从一世纪后期到三世纪不等。", "currentLocation": "都柏林切斯特．贝蒂图书馆（BP II，56叶）；安娜堡密歇根大学图书馆（inv. 6238，30叶）", "establishes": [ "同一部希腊文保罗书信纸草抄本现存86叶，分藏于都柏林切斯特．贝蒂图书馆（BP II，56叶）和安娜堡密歇根大学图书馆（inv. 6238，30叶）。各目录根据古文字学依据，把它定于约公元200年。它来自埃及：切斯特．贝蒂图书馆为其中一叶（BP II f.61）所作的展品标签，标注为埃及、公元三世纪。", "现存叶片依次载有：罗马书（从5:17起，有缺漏）、希伯来书、哥林多前书和哥林多后书、以弗所书、加拉太书、腓立比书、歌罗西书，以及帖撒罗尼迦前书（残缺，在5:28中断）。可见这些书信当时被合抄成一本书，而希伯来书紧接在罗马书之后。", "P46中的罗马书已经包含第16章，其中有对坚革里的非比的推荐，以及对百基拉、亚居拉等人的问安（16:1-23）。但它把结尾的颂赞放在15:33之后，并从16:23直接接到希伯来书的标题。这段颂赞在校勘本中为16:25-27，在WEB的编号中为14:24-26。", "其中的以弗所书以“致以弗所人”为题，但以弗所书1:1的问安却没有写明收信城市。因此，P46是这节经文这种形式的早期见证。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "这部抄本是否曾包含帖撒罗尼迦后书、腓利门书或教牧书信。它的开头和末尾几叶已经佚失，关于这些缺叶能容纳多少文字的判断，都只是估计。", "其中任何一封书信的作者是谁。收入希伯来书，表明这部抄本的使用者把它与保罗书信归为一类。这是他们看法的证据，而不是谁写了它的证据。当时看法并不一致：亚历山太的革利免称希伯来书为保罗的作品，而在罗马，盖乌斯只算保罗书信十三封（优西比乌，《教会史》6.14.2；6.20.3）。", "确切的年代，或使徒行传所记的事件。年代来自字迹，而不是抄本中的任何陈述。这部抄本见证的是书信的文本和流传，而不是书信所描述的历史，也不是使徒行传对那段历史的记述。" ], "debate": "有三个问题尚无定论。年代：多数古文字学家把这一字迹定在约公元200年；INTF以及Orsini和Clarysse定在三世纪初，Griffin则主张大约175至225年。Kim提出一世纪后期（附和者寥寥），Comfort和Barrett提出二世纪中叶，而密歇根叶片的首位编者Sanders则把它定在三世纪。内容：Kenyon判断佚失的末尾几叶太少，容不下教牧书信；Duff则认为抄写者正在压缩文字，可能加了叶片。马吉安的版本也没有教牧书信（特土良，《驳马吉安》5.21），但那是来自不同地区和群体的类比，而不是关于这部抄本的证据。罗马书：15:33之后的颂赞标志着一个十五章的版本（Manson），还是在原本十六章的书信中被后来移置（Gamble）？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "更早的年代", "statement": "Kim（1988）把P46定在一世纪后期，Comfort和Barrett（2001）定在二世纪中叶。若其中任何一说正确，这部书信集就更古老。多数古文字学家倾向于约公元200年，而且凭字迹所定的任何年代都有几十年的误差范围。" }, { "label": "原计划收入或增补教牧书信（Duff）", "statement": "Duff（1998）认为，抄写者在后面几页压缩了文字，可能计划增加叶片，因此这部抄本或许原本打算收入教牧书信。Kenyon的相反判断，依据的是对佚失叶片所能提供篇幅的估算。现存叶片无法为任何一方定案。" }, { "label": "十五章的罗马书", "statement": "Manson把15:33之后的颂赞读作寄往罗马的十五章版本的结尾，第16章则属于送往以弗所的抄本。Gamble则主张十六章的书信是原貌。P46本身仍把第16章作为罗马书的一部分抄录。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence/papyrus-46" }, { "id": "marcion-apostolikon", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 138, "dateTo": 161, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Colossians 4:16", "Ephesians 1:1", "Ephesians 2:12", "1 Timothy 6:7", "1 Timothy 6:10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.timothy", "person.titus", "person.philemon" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.colossae" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.17.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "We have it on the true tradition of the Church, that this epistle was sent to the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans. Marcion, however, was very desirous of giving it the new title (of Laodicean), as if he were extremely accurate in investigating such a point.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.11.12", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I here pass over discussion about another epistle, which we hold to have been written to the Ephesians, but the heretics to the Laodiceans.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.13.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But what serious gaps Marcion has made in this epistle especially, by withdrawing whole passages at his will, will be clear from the unmutilated text of our own copy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 1.19.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of this teacher there is no doubt that he is a heretic of the Antonine period, impious under the pious. Now, from Tiberius to Antoninus Pius, there are about 115 years and 6-1/2 months.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 1.15", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03121.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "no creation of His at all has been discovered up to the fifteenth of the Emperor Severus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1.27.2", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103127.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In like manner, too, he dismembered the Epistles of Paul, removing all that is said by the apostle respecting that God who made the world, to the effect that He is the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 4.11.9 (quoting Justin)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And there is a certain Marcion of Pontus, who is even now still teaching his followers to think that there is some other God greater than the Creator.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment (Canon Muratorianus)", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, sec. 3 (ANF 5 numbering)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-lightfoot", "author": "Polycarp", "work": "Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians", "translator": "J. B. Lightfoot", "year": "1891", "locator": "Phil. 4.1", "url": "https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/polycarp-lightfoot.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But the love of money is the beginning of all troubles.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF NTVMR transcription of P46", "locator": "P46 folio 75r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Adolf von Harnack", "work": "Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott", "year": "1921 (2nd ed. 1924)", "view": "Reconstructed Marcion's Gospel and Apostolikon from patristic citations. He treated Marcion as a deliberate editor who removed what he took to be Judaizing additions, and saw his canon as a major stimulus to the church's New Testament." }, { "author": "Karl Holl (ed.)", "work": "Epiphanius, vol. 2: Panarion haer. 34-64 (Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller 31)", "year": "1922", "view": "Critical edition of the Greek text. In it Panarion 42 lists Marcion's ten letters from Galatians to Philippians, with Philemon ninth and Philippians tenth, and says Marcion also had parts of a so-called 'Laodiceans'." }, { "author": "John Knox", "work": "Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon", "year": "1942", "view": "Argued that Marcion's two-part scripture, a Gospel and the Apostle, was the catalyst for the formation of the catholic New Testament." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Die Entstehung der christlichen Bibel", "year": "1968", "view": "Argued that Marcion was the first to create a defined Christian scripture, and that the church's New Testament took shape partly in response." }, { "author": "Hans von Campenhausen", "work": "Polykarp von Smyrna und die Pastoralbriefe", "year": "1951", "view": "Proposed that the Pastoral Letters were written in the mid-second century, possibly by Polycarp, partly against Marcion-like teaching." }, { "author": "John J. Clabeaux", "work": "A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul: A Reassessment of the Text of the Pauline Corpus Attested by Marcion", "year": "1989", "view": "Argued that many readings attributed to Marcion are pre-Marcionite, shared with other early text forms, so Marcion edited an inherited collection less than his critics claimed." }, { "author": "Ulrich Schmid", "work": "Marcion und sein Apostolos: Rekonstruktion und historische Einordnung der marcionitischen Paulusbriefausgabe", "year": "1995", "view": "Re-examined the patristic evidence critically. Concluded that Marcion used an existing edition of Paul's letters and that demonstrably tendentious changes are relatively few." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Argued that collecting Paul's letters began with Paul's own editing of some of them, so letter collections predate Marcion." }, { "author": "Jason D. BeDuhn", "work": "The First New Testament: Marcion's Scriptural Canon", "year": "2013", "view": "Offers an English reconstruction of Marcion's Gospel and Apostolikon, presents it as the first New Testament, and treats patristic charges of mutilation with caution." }, { "author": "Judith M. Lieu", "work": "Marcion and the Making of a Heretic: God and Scripture in the Second Century", "year": "2015", "view": "Stresses that Marcion is known only through polemical portraits, and cautions against confident reconstruction of his text or motives." }, { "author": "Luke Timothy Johnson", "work": "The First and Second Letters to Timothy (Anchor Bible 35A)", "year": "2001", "view": "Defends Pauline authorship and a first-century date for 1–2 Timothy, against the view that they were written in the second century." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q201346", "label": "Marcion of Sinope" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q754941", "label": "Marcionism" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q731974", "label": "Panarion" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q174929", "label": "Tertullian" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1231095", "label": "Epistle to the Laodiceans" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q408673", "label": "Epistle to the Ephesians" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q369042", "label": "pastoral epistles" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "638955", "label": "Laodicea ad Lycum/Diospolis/Roas" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "599612", "label": "Ephesus/Arsinoe(ia)" } ], "title": "马吉安的十封保罗书信版本（“Apostolikon”）", "summary": "本都的马吉安是二世纪中叶的一位教师，他使用一个以加拉太书居首、收录十封保罗书信的版本。这个版本没有提摩太前书、提摩太后书和提多书；据特土良说，它给以弗所书加上“致老底嘉人”的标题。这个版本已经失传，只能从反对者的著作中得知，主要是特土良（约207年起）和伊皮法纽（四世纪后期）。它显示到二世纪中叶，已有十封书信被汇编成一个版本。它本身不能为教牧书信定年。", "dating": "二世纪中叶。特土良把马吉安置于安东尼．庇护在位期间（138至161年）；这个版本本身的年代不详，可能更早。这里给出的138至161年，是马吉安活动的时间段，而不是这个版本的年代。", "currentLocation": "文本传统（已失传；根据特土良、伊皮法纽等人的引文重构）", "establishes": [ "马吉安活跃于二世纪中叶。优西比乌引述殉道者游斯丁的话（《教会史》4.11.9），说马吉安当时仍在世并在教导。特土良称他为安东尼．庇护在位期间（138至161年）的异端者（《驳马吉安》1.19.2）。爱任纽已经指控他从保罗书信中删去凡称世界的创造者为基督之父的内容（《驳异端》1.27.2）。", "特土良在《驳马吉安》第5卷中按以下次序驳斥十封书信：加拉太书、哥林多前书、哥林多后书、罗马书、帖撒罗尼迦前书、帖撒罗尼迦后书、“老底嘉人书”（以弗所书）、歌罗西书、腓立比书和腓利门书。伊皮法纽（《良药宝库》42）是较晚的见证，他说自己是根据马吉安本人的文本来论辩的；他列出同样的十封书信，也以加拉太书居首，但用的是以弗所书这个名称，并把腓利门书列第九、腓立比书列第十。", "提摩太前书、提摩太后书和提多书不在这个版本中。特土良说，马吉安接受致腓利门的那封简短私人书信，却拒绝致提摩太和提多的书信（《驳马吉安》5.21.1）。两份清单中都没有希伯来书。", "在马吉安派的使用中，教会所知的以弗所书题为“致老底嘉人”。特土良在讨论以弗所书2:12时说，异端者认为这封信是写给老底嘉人的，并把这个新标题归咎于马吉安（《驳马吉安》5.11.12；5.17.1）。伊皮法纽（《良药宝库》42）则列出以弗所书，但说马吉安还拥有所谓“老底嘉人书”的部分内容。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它没有给出马吉安的确切措辞。这个文本只以敌对者的引述和转述形式留存，因此现代的重构各不相同，而一些被归咎于马吉安的读法，可能是他承袭下来的更古老的异文。", "它不能表明教牧书信写于何时、出自谁手。这些书信的缺席，符合特土良所说马吉安拒绝了它们；但也同样符合马吉安不知道这些书信，或它们写成较晚的情况。", "它不能表明以弗所书原本是寄往老底嘉的。马吉安的标题可能是根据歌罗西书4:16所作的推断，套用在一份没有写明以弗所为收信地的抄本上。特土良把这个标题视为马吉安的创新。", "它不能表明马吉安首创了保罗书信集，也不能表明教会的新约只是对他的回应。" ], "debate": "有三个问题仍无定论。第一，这个版本是马吉安编成的，还是他承袭的？他又改动了多少？批评他的人指控他蓄意删削（特土良，《驳马吉安》5.13.4）。Clabeaux和Schmid认为，他的许多读法当时已在流传，因此他是在一部承袭而来的书信集上加工。第二，提摩太前书、提摩太后书和提多书的缺席，是否如特土良所说，意味着他拒绝了这些书信？他可能不知道这些书信，或者它们当时尚未写成。第三，“老底嘉人书”是否保存了一个真实的收信地址？这封书信至少在一份早期抄本（P46）中缺少以弗所这个收信地。抑或这是马吉安从歌罗西书4:16推断出来的？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "承袭而来、略经编辑的版本", "statement": "Clabeaux（1989）和Schmid（1995）认为，马吉安使用的是一个现成的保罗书信版本。批评者归咎于他的许多读法，也出现在其他早期的文本形式中。按此观点，他蓄意作出的改动，比特土良和伊皮法纽所暗示的要少。" }, { "label": "教牧书信写于马吉安的时代（von Campenhausen）", "statement": "von Campenhausen（1951）提出的一种少数派观点，把提摩太前书、提摩太后书和提多书定在二世纪中叶，并提出作者是坡旅甲或与他同时代的人，写作目的部分是为了反驳类似马吉安的教导。按此观点，这些书信之所以不在马吉安的版本中，是因为它们是新作，或者尚未流传。" }, { "label": "教牧书信在马吉安之前已经存在", "statement": "无论这些书信是保罗所写（如Johnson所主张），还是一世纪与二世纪之交一位后来的追随者所写，它们都已经存在，而马吉安如特土良所说，把它们排除在外。如果坡旅甲《致腓立比人书》（4.1）呼应了提摩太前书6:7和6:10，那么提摩太前书在马吉安之前已为人所知；不过，二者的重叠也可能出于一句共同的谚语。" }, { "label": "“老底嘉人书”是真实的收信地址", "statement": "至少有一份以弗所书的早期抄本（P46）在开头一节没有提到城市名，因此一些学者认为这封信是传阅书信，或者本来是寄给老底嘉的，并把它等同于歌罗西书4:16所提的那封信。穆拉托利残篇提到一封与马吉安异端有关的伪作“老底嘉人书”，可能是另一封信。Salmond把那句拉丁文译作“针对……而写”；其他译者则理解为是为了推动马吉安异端而写的。" }, { "label": "马吉安是正典形成的催化剂", "statement": "Harnack、Knox和von Campenhausen认为，马吉安由“福音”和“使徒”两部分组成的经典，是促成教会新约的决定性推动力。Trobisch等人则认为，保罗书信早在马吉安之前就已被收集。按这种观点，他的版本反映的是一种已有的做法，而不是开创了这种做法。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-marcion-apostolikon" }, { "id": "papyrus-32", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 299, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P32", "P.Ryl. 1 5", "Manchester, John Rylands Library, Gr. P. 5" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Titus 1:11-15", "Titus 2:3-8", "Titus 3:10", "1 Timothy 3:13-4:8", "Acts 28:30-31" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.crete", "place.rome" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P32", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10032&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P133", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10133&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF online catalogue)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1)", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Against Heresies 3.3.3-4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Arthur S. Hunt", "work": "Catalogue of the Greek Papyri in the John Rylands Library, Manchester, vol. 1: Literary Texts (Nos. 1-61)", "year": "1911", "view": "Published the fragment as No. 5 and dated it to the third century, comparing the hand to the Oxyrhynchus Genesis (P.Oxy. 656) and judging it perhaps the later of the two. He placed it at the bottom of a leaf from a papyrus book, noted an early variant at Titus 2:7 without treating it as original, and named no find-spot, which by his preface means the provenance was not assured." }, { "author": "Raymond E. Brown", "work": "An Introduction to the New Testament", "year": "1997", "view": "Sets out the arguments both for Paul's direct authorship of Titus and 1 Timothy and for later authorship within the Pauline tradition, in the section 'Who Wrote Titus and I Timothy?'" } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2051055", "label": "Papyrus 32" } ], "title": "纸草抄本32：提多书的一份早期残片", "summary": "P32是收藏于曼彻斯特的一小块纸草残片（P.Ryl. 1 5），出自一部抄本的一叶，保存了提多书1:11-15和2:3-8的部分内容。根据字迹，它被定于三世纪（INTF：公元200至225年；Hunt认为它或许比一份可资比较的三世纪字迹更晚），与P133同属现存最古老的教牧书信抄本。它表明当时提多书已以书册形式被抄写；但它不能确定这封信由谁、在何时写成。", "dating": "根据字迹定为三世纪（Hunt 1911；他认为它或许比用来比较的那份三世纪字迹更晚）；INTF目录定为三世纪初，即公元200至225年。200至299年这一范围涵盖这两种判断。", "currentLocation": "曼彻斯特大学John Rylands图书馆（Gr. P. 5）", "establishes": [ "一块约10.6×4.9厘米的残片，来自一部纸草抄本某叶的底部，一面保存提多书1:11-15的部分内容，另一面保存提多书2:3-8的部分内容。A. S. Hunt于1911年以P.Ryl. 1 5为编号发表了它，它在Gregory-Aland编目中为P32（曼彻斯特，Gr. P. 5）。", "它的年代仅凭字迹判定。Hunt（1911）把它的字迹与俄克喜林库斯的创世记纸草（P.Oxy. 656）作比较，定为三世纪，并认为它或许是两者中较晚的一份。INTF目录定为公元200至225年。", "它与P133（提摩太前书3:13-4:8，编目为三世纪）同属已知最古老的教牧书信抄本。三封教牧书信都没有出现在P46的现存叶片中；P46是三世纪初的保罗书信纸草抄本。", "Hunt（1911）注意到提多书2:7中一个词有一处单字母的早期异文；除此之外，他只知道两份九世纪抄本记有这一异文。他提醒说，这个异文年代早，并不证明它是原文。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能表明提多书由谁、在何时写成。一份在保罗之后一个多世纪才制成的抄本，既符合保罗是作者的看法，也符合此信是在他死后托他之名写成的看法。", "它不是提多书存在的最早证据。二世纪后期写作的爱任纽，已把提多书3:10归于保罗，并提到保罗致提摩太的书信（《驳异端》3.3.3-4）。", "它不能表明它所属的抄本还包含什么（只有提多书、三封教牧书信，还是更大的保罗书信集），也不能表明它在何处抄写或发现。Hunt没有注明出土地点；按他自己说明的做法，这意味着其来源并不确知。" ], "debate": "有两个问题尚无定论。第一是年代。P32只凭字迹定年，因此任何年代都只是估计：Hunt说是三世纪，或许比他用来比较的字迹更晚；INTF目录则说是公元200至225年。第二是意义。特土良记载，马吉安二世纪中叶的书信集中没有提多书，而P46的现存部分中也没有它。有人把这些缺席解释为被拒绝或被遗漏；也有人视之为写成较晚的迹象。P32显示提多书到三世纪已被抄成书册，但它无法判定作者归属。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "保罗所写", "statement": "许多福音派学者以及其他一些学者认为，保罗在从使徒行传28:30-31所记的罗马拘押中获释之后写了提多书，可能借助了一位书记。使徒行传没有叙述这次获释，这种观点是根据书信和后来的传统重构出来的。P32与这种观点相容，却不能证明它，因为它是在保罗在世很久之后才制成的抄本。" }, { "label": "后来托保罗之名写成", "statement": "许多批判学者认为，教牧书信是一位追随者在保罗死后托他之名写成的。他们指出词汇、教会体制，以及这些书信不在马吉安的书信集中。一份三世纪的抄本同样与这种观点相容。" }, { "label": "这份残片的年代范围更宽", "statement": "由于P32只是通过比较字迹来定年，它的年代是一个大致的时间范围，而不是一个固定的点。Hunt本人认为，它或许比他用来比较的那份三世纪创世记纸草更晚，因此不能排除它属于三世纪较晚时期。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-32" }, { "id": "irenaeus-paul", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 176, "dateTo": 189, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Timothy 1:4", "1 Timothy 6:7", "1 Timothy 6:10", "1 Timothy 6:20", "2 Timothy 4:10-11", "2 Timothy 4:21", "Titus 3:10", "Colossians 4:14", "Galatians 2:1-2", "Acts 9:15-16", "Acts 11:27-30", "Acts 15:1-4", "Acts 16:8-13", "Acts 20:5-6", "Acts 27:1-28:16" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke", "person.timothy", "person.titus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.rome", "place.troas", "place.philippi", "place.jerusalem", "place.puteoli" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1, preface 1 (ANF editors' note identifies 1 Tim 1:4)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.ii.i.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "as certain men have set the truth aside, and bring in lying words and vain genealogies, which, as the apostle says,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.1.1", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.ii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.3.3", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.3.4 (Titus 3:10 cited as Paul's)", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Such was the horror which the apostles and their disciples had against holding even verbal communication with any corrupters of the truth; as Paul also says,", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.13.3", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xiv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "If, then, any one shall, from the Acts of the Apostles, carefully scrutinize the time concerning which it is written that he went up to Jerusalem on account of the forementioned question, he will find those years mentioned by Paul coinciding with it.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.14.1", "url": "https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As Luke was present at all these occurrences, he carefully noted them down in writing, so that he cannot be convicted of falsehood or boastfulness", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 3.15.1", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103315.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "For neither can they contend that Paul was no apostle, when he was chosen for this purpose; nor can they prove Luke guilty of falsehood, when he proclaims the truth to us with all diligence.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 1.16.3 (Titus 3:10 cited as Paul's command)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103116.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "irenaeus-against-heresies-anf", "author": "Irenaeus", "work": "Against Heresies", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut", "year": "1885", "locator": "Haer. 5, preface (the work's title adopts the phrase of 1 Tim 6:20)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103500.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.5.9", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the third book of his work Against Heresies he has inserted a list of the bishops of Rome, bringing it down as far as Eleutherus (whose times we are now considering), under whom he composed his work.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.6.1 (Greek text of Haer. 3.3.3)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Paul speaks of this Linus in his Epistles to Timothy.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.7.1 (title Irenaeus gave his five books)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.8.3 (Greek text of Haer. 3.1.1)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "and Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 5.22", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the tenth year of the reign of Commodus, Victor succeeded Eleutherus, the latter having held the episcopate for thirteen years.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "Against Marcion", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus, which all treat of ecclesiastical discipline.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, section 2 (printed in ANF 5 among the 'Fragments of Caius')", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Moreover, the Acts of all the Apostles are comprised by Luke in one book, and addressed to the most excellent Theophilus", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "muratorian-fragment-anf", "work": "Muratorian Fragment", "translator": "S. D. F. Salmond", "year": "1886", "locator": "Muratorian Fragment, section 3 (printed in ANF 5 among the 'Fragments of Caius')", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0510.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "polycarp-philippians-anf", "author": "Polycarp", "work": "Epistle to the Philippians", "translator": "Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson", "year": "1885", "locator": "Phil. 4.1 (parallels 1 Tim 6:7, 10 without naming Paul)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0136.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Joseph B. Tyson", "work": "Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle", "year": "2006", "view": "Proposes that Acts and the final form of Luke's Gospel were published around 120–125, with the need to counter Marcion as a prominent motive." }, { "author": "Bart D. Ehrman", "work": "Forged: Writing in the Name of God", "year": "2011", "view": "Argues that a number of New Testament writings bearing apostles' names were written by later authors, and counts the Pastoral Epistles among them." }, { "author": "Stanley E. Porter", "work": "The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Greek Text", "year": "2023", "view": "Defends Paul's authorship of the Pastoral Epistles in a detailed linguistic commentary on the Greek text." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q182123", "label": "Irenaeus" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1281900", "label": "Against Heresies (Irenaeus)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "167717", "label": "Lugdunum (Lyon), Irenaeus's see" } ], "title": "里昂的爱任纽论教牧书信与《使徒行传》的作者归属", "summary": "里昂的爱任纽约在公元180年撰写《驳异端》，明确把写给提摩太和提多的书信引为保罗的作品，并说路加——他称之为保罗形影不离的同伴——既写了福音书，也写了《使徒行传》。在这两项作者归属上，他都是年代可考的最早见证之一。这显示了这些书卷到那时如何被接受；却不能确定作者问题，因为他论证路加是同伴时，部分依据的正是《使徒行传》本身。", "dating": "约公元180年（第三卷写于埃莱乌特里乌斯任罗马主教期间；优西比乌记他在任十三年，至康茂德在位第十年为止，即约189年）", "currentLocation": "文本传统（全书仅有一部古拉丁文译本完整存世；希腊文原文的部分内容保存在希坡律陀、伊皮法纽和优西比乌的引文中）", "establishes": [ "到约公元180年，在爱任纽所代表的教会中，写给提摩太和提多的书信被当作保罗的书信来读。他引用《提摩太后书》（《驳异端》3.3.3；3.14.1）和《提多书》（1.16.3；3.3.4）时点名保罗；在全书开头的序言中，把《提摩太前书》1:4当作“那位使徒”的话来引用；又以取自《提摩太前书》6:20的语句为这部著作命名（第5卷序言；优西比乌《教会史》5.7.1）。", "爱任纽指名路加——他称之为保罗的同伴——是第三卷福音书的作者（3.1.1），并把《使徒行传》视为路加的著作。他引用《使徒行传》16章和20章的“我们”段落，又把其后的行程，直到前往部丢利和罗马的航程，概括为路加对自己亲眼所见之事的记录（3.14.1）。他也把《使徒行传》中关于保罗蒙召的记述归于路加（3.15.1）。", "他把《使徒行传》与保罗的书信对照阅读。他主张，《加拉太书》2:1–2所说的耶路撒冷之行，就是《使徒行传》15:2所记、为割礼问题而去的那一次，因此保罗的陈述与路加的记述相符（3.13.3）。《加拉太书》2章对应的是《使徒行传》15章，还是11:27–30的赈济饥荒之行，至今仍有争议。", "第三卷可定年于埃莱乌特里乌斯（Eleutherius）任主教期间。卷中的罗马主教名单从利奴开始——爱任纽认为他就是写给提摩太的书信中提到的那位利奴——一直列到现任主教埃莱乌特里乌斯（3.3.3）。优西比乌以希腊文引录这份名单，并据此说这部著作写于埃莱乌特里乌斯任内（《教会史》5.5.9；5.6.1）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它本身不能证明保罗写了教牧书信，或路加写了《使徒行传》。爱任纽写作时距保罗已一个多世纪，而且是在驳斥异端的论争之中；他论证路加是同伴，部分依据的正是《使徒行传》的“我们”段落、《歌罗西书》4:14和《提摩太后书》4:11本身。", "它并不是这些书卷最早的踪迹。坡旅甲写给腓立比信徒的信（4.1）更早就有与《提摩太前书》相似的语句，只是没有点名保罗。爱任纽标志的是明确的作者归属，而非最早的使用。他也不是唯一的见证：年代有争议的穆拉托利残篇同样把《使徒行传》归于路加，并把一封致提多的信和两封致提摩太的信列为保罗的书信。", "他的继承名单以利奴为罗马第一任主教，这是二世纪末的教会传统。它不能独立证实保罗在世时罗马教会的组织方式。" ], "debate": "学者对爱任纽的证言能证明什么意见分歧。许多批判学者视教牧书信为托名之作，并怀疑《使徒行传》出自保罗的同伴之手；有些人把《使徒行传》的年代定到二世纪，Tyson更把它与马吉安之争联系起来。按这种看法，爱任纽见证的是接受情况，而非起源。另一些学者则认为，他前后一致的作者归属保存了更早的传统，而且与文本相合。特土良说马吉安拒绝了教牧书信；学者对马吉安是拒绝了这些书信，还是根本不知道它们，仍有争论。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "后来形成的共识", "statement": "到约180年，在爱任纽所知的高卢、罗马和亚西亚教会中，这些作者归属已经确定；但数十年的流传就足以形成这种共识。按这种看法，教牧书信可能出自保罗身后，《使徒行传》可能是较晚作者的作品，而爱任纽只见证接受情况。" }, { "label": "保存了更早的传统", "statement": "爱任纽说他年轻时见过坡旅甲，并诉诸由使徒建立的教会。按这种看法，他传递的是早已确立的传统。这一传统与《使徒行传》的“我们”段落一起，支持路加是《使徒行传》的作者，也与保罗写了教牧书信的看法相容。" }, { "label": "部分是从文本推出的", "statement": "爱任纽可能是把《使徒行传》的“我们”段落与《歌罗西书》4:14和《提摩太后书》4:11对照阅读，才认定了路加。若是这样，他的证言并不完全独立于它被用来支持的新约证据。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-irenaeus-paul" }, { "id": "acts-paul-thecla", "kind": "literary-early-christian", "dateFrom": 150, "dateTo": 200, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:50-51", "2 Timothy 1:15-18", "2 Timothy 2:17-18", "2 Timothy 3:11", "2 Timothy 4:10", "2 Timothy 4:19", "2 Corinthians 10:10", "Galatians 4:13-14" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.titus", "person.demas", "person.onesiphorus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.iconium", "place.lystra", "place.pisidian-antioch", "place.myra" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 1 (section numbers as in James 1924): Paul goes up to Iconium", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As Paul was going up to Iconium after the flight from Antioch, his fellow-travellers were Demas and Ermogenes, full of hypocrisy", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 3 (section numbers as in James 1924): Onesiphorus waits on the road to Lystra", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he went along the road to Lystra, and stood waiting for him, and kept looking at the passers by according to the description of Titus.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 3 (section numbers as in James 1924): description of Paul", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And he saw Paul coming, a man small in size, bald-headed, bandy-legged, well-built, with eyebrows meeting, rather long-nosed, full of grace. For sometimes he seemed like a man, and sometimes he had the countenance of an angel.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla 14 (section numbers as in James 1924): Demas and Hermogenes on the resurrection", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "And we shall teach you that the resurrection of which this man speaks has taken place, because it has already taken place in the children which we have", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "acts-paul-thecla-anf", "author": "Anonymous", "work": "Acts of Paul and Thecla (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8)", "translator": "Alexander Walker", "year": "1886", "locator": "Acts of Paul and Thecla, editor's note introducing the alternative ending from Grabe's manuscript", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0816.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Instead of the last two sections, the ms. which Dr. Grabe used has the following:", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "On Baptism 17.5 (Thecla's example)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But if the writings which wrongly go under Paul's name, claim Thecla's example as a licence for women's teaching and baptizing", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-baptism-anf", "author": "Tertullian", "work": "On Baptism (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "translator": "S. Thelwall", "year": "1885", "locator": "On Baptism 17.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0321.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing, as if he were augmenting Paul's fame from his own store, after being convicted, and confessing that he had done it from love of Paul, was removed from his office.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II vol. 1)", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.25.4", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Among the rejected writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Abraham J. Malherbe", "work": "A Physical Description of Paul (Harvard Theological Review 79)", "year": "1986", "view": "Argues that Greek influence is visible in early Christian reflection on Paul's physical appearance, and reads the Thecla portrait in that light." }, { "author": "Dennis Ronald MacDonald", "work": "The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon", "year": "1983", "view": "Argues that legends about Paul and Thecla were transmitted orally before being written into the Acts of Paul, and that the author of the Pastoral Epistles knew such legends and wrote in Paul's name partly to counter them." }, { "author": "Stephen J. Davis", "work": "The Cult of Saint Thecla: A Tradition of Women's Piety in Late Antiquity", "year": "2001", "view": "Reconstructs the cult of Thecla in Asia Minor and Egypt from literary, artistic and archaeological evidence, and argues that it consistently promoted virginity and pilgrimage in ways that strengthened women's religious authority." }, { "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170", "year": "1893", "view": "Holds that the plain portrait of Paul embodies very early tradition and that the tale's Royal Road toward Lystra shows a writer who knew the localities, while disclaiming that the events narrated are historical." }, { "author": "M. R. James", "work": "The Apocryphal New Testament", "year": "1924", "view": "Dates the Acts of Paul to about AD 160 from Tertullian's report, treats Queen Tryphaena as a historical personage, and reports that Ramsay's theory of an earlier written Thecla story was not generally accepted." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q1282652", "label": "Acts of Paul and Thecla" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q764765", "label": "Acts of Paul" } ], "title": "《保罗与特克拉行传》与最早对保罗的描述", "summary": "《保罗与特克拉行传》显示二世纪的基督徒如何记忆和想象保罗；它不是他旅程的独立记录。这部传奇故事原是《保罗行传》中的一段，也曾单独流传，其中有已知最早的保罗外貌描述。约公元200年写作的特土良说，亚西亚的一位长老出于对保罗的爱，借保罗之名写了一部关于特克拉的作品，因而被革职。", "dating": "成书早于特土良的《论洗礼》（约公元200年；Ramsay定为约195年），很可能约在公元150至200年间；M. R. James（1924）认为约在公元160年。现存抄本则晚得多。", "currentLocation": "文本传统（希腊文本，另有科普特文、拉丁文、叙利亚文等译本）", "establishes": [ "到约公元200年，已有一部托保罗之名的作品，借特克拉的榜样为女性施教和施洗辩护。特土良说，亚西亚的一位长老撰写此书，仿佛要为保罗增添声誉；他被定罪后，承认自己是出于对保罗的爱而写，随即被革职（《论洗礼》17.5）。", "它提供了已知最早的保罗外貌描述：身材矮小，头顶光秃，双腿弯曲，体格结实，两道眉毛相连，鼻子略长，满有恩慈，有时看似凡人，有时又有天使的面容（《保罗与特克拉行传》3）。", "故事开头，保罗从彼西底的安提阿逃离后上以哥念去，与《使徒行传》13:50–51相同；阿尼色弗则在通往路司得的路上等候他（参《提摩太后书》3:11）。它使用的名字也见于《提摩太后书》（底马、黑摩其尼、阿尼色弗、提多），并把认为复活已经发生的教导归给底马和黑摩其尼；《提摩太后书》2:17–18则把这种教导归于许米乃和腓理徒。", "到四世纪初，优西比乌把《保罗行传》列为“被拒绝”的著作，不在公认的书卷之内（《教会史》3.25.4）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能显示保罗的真实相貌。这段描绘也许在他死后九十年或更久才写成，而文中所说的消息来源提多，本身就是故事里的人物。", "它不是《使徒行传》的独立见证。其中的地名和人名可能取自《使徒行传》和《提摩太后书》，因此与它们相合并不构成另外的佐证。", "它不能证实特克拉所经历的磨难、她的神迹，或特吕菲娜女王在其中的角色。即使特吕菲娜就是James和Ramsay所认定的那位历史上的附庸女王，提到一个真实人物也不能证明这段情节属实。", "特土良只凭这部作品引用特克拉的榜样来指认它。他所见的文本是否与现存的《保罗与特克拉行传》逐段相符，并无证据证明；抄本晚得多，各见证之间也有差异（Walker的校订本印有一个出自Grabe抄本的不同结尾）。" ], "debate": "有两个问题仍未解决。第一，这幅保罗画像是否保存了记忆？Ramsay认为，其中平实、不加美化的细节体现了很早的传统，当地的地理细节也显示作者熟悉那一带；另一些学者则按希腊描述身体与品格的惯例来解读这些特征，那样它就是一幅文学画像。第二，这个故事与和它共用人名的《提摩太后书》是什么关系？作者可能是从这封信借用了这些名字；也可能如MacDonald所主张，两者都反映了关于保罗、有争议的口传故事。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "早期的地方记忆", "statement": "W. M. Ramsay（1893）主张，这幅平实、不加美化的画像体现了很早的传统；故事中通往路司得的“皇家大道”——他认为这个名称在公元74年后便不再使用——显示作者是熟悉当地的一世纪人。Ramsay本人并未声称这些事件是史实。M. R. James（1924）指出，Ramsay关于更早已有一部成文特克拉故事的理论，并未被普遍接受。" }, { "label": "文学画像", "statement": "这些特征遵循希腊描述人的身体与品格的惯例；Abraham Malherbe（1986）正是在这一背景下解读这幅画像。按这种读法，它显示的是二世纪基督徒心目中的保罗，而不是他的真实相貌。如果这些特征出于惯例，那么它们看似平实，也不能保证保存了早期记忆。" }, { "label": "从书信推想而来", "statement": "后来的作者可能根据保罗自己的书信，想象出一个其貌不扬的人物：书信中批评者说他亲身在场时显得软弱（《哥林多后书》10:10），他回忆自己在加拉太时身体的软弱，又说加拉太人把他当作神的天使来接待（《加拉太书》4:13–14）——这或许就是画像中天使面容的来源。" }, { "label": "教牧书信背后的口传传说", "statement": "Dennis MacDonald（1983）主张，保罗与特克拉的故事在被写进《保罗行传》之前，已作为口传传说流传；教牧书信的写作，部分就是为了反驳这类传说。按这种看法，这个故事并非只是从《提摩太后书》借用了人名。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-acts-paul-thecla" }, { "id": "papyrus-30", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P30", "P. Oxy. XIII 1598", "Ghent University Library Inv. 61", "INTF Liste docID 10030" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "1 Thessalonians 4:12-13", "1 Thessalonians 4:16-17", "1 Thessalonians 5:3", "1 Thessalonians 5:8-10", "1 Thessalonians 5:12-18", "1 Thessalonians 5:25-28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-2", "Acts 17:1-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silvanus", "person.timothy" ], "placeIds": [ "place.thessalonica" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P30 (docID 10030)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10030&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript record: P30", "locator": "GA P30", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P30", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item: Papyrus 30", "locator": "Q2051048", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q2051048.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt", "work": "The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part XIII", "year": "1919", "view": "Edit P. Oxy. 1598, place the hand probably in the late third century while heading it late third or fourth, find the text eclectic, and suggest from the surviving page numbers that the codex was a collection of Paul's letters." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2051048", "label": "Papyrus 30" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q622640", "label": "Oxyrhynchus (find-place)" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "736983", "label": "Oxyrhynchus/Pemje (find-place)" } ], "title": "纸草抄本30（P. Oxy. 1598）：藏于根特的《帖撒罗尼迦前书》和《帖撒罗尼迦后书》残片", "summary": "P30显示，约到三世纪时，《帖撒罗尼迦前书》和《帖撒罗尼迦后书》是前后相接抄写的，很可能属于一部保罗书信集。这些残片出自一部在俄克喜林库斯发现、现藏根特的册子本，保存了《帖撒罗尼迦前书》4至5章的部分内容和《帖撒罗尼迦后书》的开头，并带有页码207–208；最初的编者认为这些页码指向这样一部书信集。它无法显示这两封信写于何时、何地、由谁所写。", "dating": "CSNTM的记录以及INTF《Liste》中馆藏层级的记录都定为三世纪；《Liste》的条目标头则作“E II - A III”（二世纪末至三世纪初）。最初的编者认为字迹很可能属于三世纪末，但条目标题写作三世纪末或四世纪。", "currentLocation": "根特大学图书馆，Inv. 61", "establishes": [ "一部出自埃及俄克喜林库斯的纸草册子本载有《帖撒罗尼迦前书》，抄于三世纪；最初的编者也容许是四世纪。现存来自两张相连叶片的四块残片，另有一小块未能辨识的碎片；每页一栏，约34行。这些叶片保存了《帖撒罗尼迦前书》4:12–13、4:16–17、5:3、5:8–10、5:12–18和5:25–28，中间有大段缺损。", "在这部册子本中，《帖撒罗尼迦后书》紧接在《帖撒罗尼迦前书》之后。同一栏依次载有《帖撒罗尼迦前书》的结尾、第一封信的卷末标题、第二封信的卷首标题，以及它的问安（《帖撒罗尼迦后书》1:1–2）。问安部分残存，包括西拉（Silvanus）这个名字的一部分。", "页码207和208得以保存，可见《帖撒罗尼迦前书》4:12之前约有206页。Grenfell和Hunt（1919）指出，按通常顺序从《罗马书》排到《帖撒罗尼迦前书》的保罗书信，恰好能填满这些页面，并提出此书是一部保罗书信集。这是他们的推断。", "其文本属混合型。最初的编者发现，它有时与梵蒂冈抄本一致，有时与西奈抄本和亚历山大抄本（Codex Alexandrinus）一致。按他们的释读，《帖撒罗尼迦前书》以西奈抄本和梵蒂冈抄本原抄写者所用的简短标题结束。它没有其他抄本添加的卷末附注；其中一条附注说，这封信是从雅典写的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能确定这两封信任何一封的写作年代或地点。它是约两个世纪后的抄本；缺少“从雅典寄出”的附注，既不证实也不推翻关于保罗在何处写《帖撒罗尼迦前书》的任何看法。", "它不能确定《帖撒罗尼迦后书》的作者。它只显示，到三世纪时，这部册子本把它作为致帖撒罗尼迦信徒的第二封信收录，紧接在第一封之后，而且很可能是在一部保罗书信集之中。", "它不能证实《使徒行传》关于保罗在帖撒罗尼迦宣教的记述（《使徒行传》17:1–10）。", "那206页佚失页面的内容和顺序，是根据页码推算出来的；没有人见过它们。" ], "debate": "年代仅凭字迹判定。Grenfell和Hunt认为字迹很可能属于三世纪末，但条目标题写作三世纪末或四世纪。CSNTM定为三世纪，INTF《Liste》中馆藏层级的记录也是如此，而其条目标头作“E II - A III”（二世纪末至三世纪初）。认为这部册子本是保罗书信集，依据的是页码推算。约206页的佚失部分符合从《罗马书》到《帖撒罗尼迦前书》的通常顺序，但不能排除篇幅相近的其他内容。保罗是否写了《帖撒罗尼迦后书》仍有争议；这份纸草关系到这封信如何被抄写，而不是谁写了它。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "稍晚的抄本", "statement": "最初的编者在标题中把这份纸草定为三世纪末或四世纪，但他们倾向于三世纪末。如果该范围中较晚的一端正确，内容不受影响，只是P30会成为稍晚一些的见证。" }, { "label": "稍早的抄本", "statement": "INTF《Liste》的条目标头把P30定为“E II - A III”，即二世纪末至三世纪初。这一年代同样仅凭字迹判定，内容也不受影响。" }, { "label": "未必是完整的保罗书信集", "statement": "页码只能证明《帖撒罗尼迦前书》4:12之前约有206页。篇幅相近、但选篇或顺序不同的文本，也能填满同样的篇幅。“保罗书信集”是编者的可能推断，并非任何人亲眼所见。" }, { "label": "《帖撒罗尼迦后书》为托名之作", "statement": "许多批判学者认为，《帖撒罗尼迦后书》是后来的作者借保罗之名写成的。即便按这种看法，P30仍显示，到三世纪时，这封信作为致帖撒罗尼迦信徒的第二封信，紧接在《帖撒罗尼迦前书》之后抄写。这份纸草与两种作者归属观点都相容。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-30" }, { "id": "papyrus-87", "kind": "papyrus", "dateFrom": 200, "dateTo": 299, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland P87", "INTF Liste docID 10087", "Köln, Institut für Altertumskunde, Inv. Nr. 12", "P.Köln IV 170" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Philemon 1:13-15", "Philemon 1:24-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.philemon", "person.onesimus" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P87", "locator": "P87 (docID 10087)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10087&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF transcription of P87, folio 1r", "locator": "P87 f. 1r (Phlm 13-15)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10087&pageID=10&format=teiraw", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "INTF transcription of P87, folio 1v", "locator": "P87 f. 1v (Phlm 24-25)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10087&pageID=20&format=teiraw", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P139", "locator": "P139 (docID 10139)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10139&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record 01 (Codex Sinaiticus)", "locator": "01 (docID 20001)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page&format=xml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste (INTF NTVMR): manuscript record P46", "locator": "P46 (docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung" }, { "sourceKey": "csntm", "work": "CSNTM manuscript catalogue: GA P87", "locator": "GA P87", "url": "https://manuscripts.csntm.org/manuscript/View/GA_P87", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Papyrus 87", "locator": "Q571588", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q571588.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "tertullian-against-marcion-anf", "work": "Against Marcion (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3)", "locator": "Adv. Marc. 5.21", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03125.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "To this epistle alone did its brevity avail to protect it against the falsifying hands of Marcion. I wonder, however, when he received (into his Apostolicon) this letter which was written but to one man, that he rejected the two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus", "role": "primary-text", "author": "Tertullian", "translator": "Peter Holmes", "year": "1885" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Cornelia Römer (editor of no. 170), in Bärbel Kramer, Cornelia Römer, Dieter Hagedorn and others", "work": "Kölner Papyri (P. Köln), Band 4 (Papyrologica Coloniensia VII)", "year": "1982", "view": "Edits the fragment as P.Köln IV 170. The University of Cologne's collection record for this edition dates it to the early third century and gives its origin as unknown." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q571588", "label": "Papyrus 87" } ], "title": "纸草抄本87：藏于科隆的《腓利门书》残片", "summary": "纸草抄本87是一页册子本的一小块残片，现藏科隆，一面保存《腓利门书》13–15节的部分内容，另一面保存24–25节的部分内容。它被编目为三世纪，是已知最古老的《腓利门书》抄本，显示这封信到那时已以册子形式被抄写。残存的只是零星字母，它也完全没有说明这封信由谁所写、写于何处。", "dating": "公元三世纪，依字迹定年（INTF：200–299年；CSNTM：三世纪）。科隆收藏关于其校订本（P.Köln IV 170，C. Römer编）的记录把它定在该世纪早期。", "currentLocation": "科隆大学古代学研究所（Institut für Altertumskunde；Inv. Nr. 12）", "establishes": [ "科隆大学古代学研究所（Institut für Altertumskunde；Inv. Nr. 12）收藏的一块纸草残片，INTF登记为Gregory-Aland P87，一面保存《腓利门书》13–15节的部分内容，另一面保存《腓利门书》24–25节的部分内容。", "两面依次载有同一封信的部分内容，可见这块残片出自册子本的叶片，而非书卷。INTF记录一面残存八行的部分文字，另一面两行，并估计原页有32行。", "INTF把它定为三世纪（公元200–299年）。在INTF的目录中，它是唯一定年早于四世纪的《腓利门书》抄本。其次最古老的P139和西奈抄本都属四世纪。", "它是《腓利门书》到三世纪已在被抄写的实物证据。这封信更早已在流传的证据则来自文献：三世纪初写作的特土良记载，马吉安在二世纪编成的保罗书信集收有此信。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能显示《腓利门书》由谁所写、写于何时，或写于哪一次被囚期间。罗马、以弗所和该撒利亚都有人提出；这些问题都是根据书信本身来论证的。", "INTF转录中的大部分文字是编者的复原。在载有24–25节的那一面，底马的名字完全是复原的，路加的名字只读出两个字母，其中一个还不确定；因此，这块残片本身并不能证实这些名字。", "它不能显示所属的册子本只收《腓利门书》，还是收有一部保罗书信集，也不能显示它在何处抄写。所查阅的目录记录都没有给出出土地点。" ], "debate": "年代仅凭字迹判定。INTF和CSNTM把这块残片编目为三世纪，科隆收藏关于其校订本的记录则缩小到三世纪早期；根据书卷字体所定的年代，前后通常有数十年的误差。残存字母太少，任何关于其文本类型的说法都超出了残片所能显示的范围。同样，任何认为它出自像P46那样的保罗书信合集的说法也是如此；按INTF的索引，P46现存叶片中没有任何《腓利门书》的内容。多数学者基于其他理由接受《腓利门书》出自保罗；但他是在哪里写这封信的，仍有争议。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "最低限度的解读", "statement": "一块只残存约十行局部文字的残片，只能显示到三世纪已有人在册子本中抄写《腓利门书》。它不能证实这封信的处境或其中提到的人物。这些问题取决于书信本身，以及它与《歌罗西书》和《使徒行传》的关联。" }, { "label": "年代上只是略为领先", "statement": "依字迹所定的年代只是估计。如果P87抄于三世纪末，而P139或西奈抄本抄于四世纪初，那么现存最古老的几份《腓利门书》抄本在年代上就相差不远。按目录年代，P87仍是最早的，但它的领先可能只有数十年。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-papyrus-87" }, { "id": "codex-vaticanus-paul", "kind": "manuscript", "dateFrom": 300, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland 03 (B)", "Vat. gr. 1209", "INTF Liste docID 20003", "Gregory-Aland 1957 (15th-century supplement, Vat. gr. 1209 pp. 1519-1536)" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 1:1-16:24", "1 Corinthians 1:1-16:24", "2 Corinthians 1:1-13:14", "Galatians 1:1-6:18", "Ephesians 1:1-6:24", "Philippians 1:1-4:23", "Colossians 1:1-4:18", "1 Thessalonians 1:1-5:28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-3:18", "Hebrews 1:1-9:14" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 03 (docID 20003)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20003&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 1957 (docID 31957)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=31957&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana", "work": "DigiVatLib manuscript record, Vat.gr.1209", "locator": "Vat.gr.1209", "url": "https://digi.vatlib.it/mss/detail/Vat.gr.1209", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 01 (docID 20001)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 02 (docID 20002)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments (INTF, New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room)", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (docID 10046)", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata: Codex Vaticanus", "locator": "Q209285", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q209285.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "F. H. A. Scrivener", "work": "A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament", "year": "1861", "view": "Reports that the older, continuous section numbers in Vaticanus's Pauline letters end Galatians at 58, begin Ephesians at 70 and begin Hebrews at 59, and infers they were copied from an older manuscript with Hebrews before Ephesians." }, { "author": "Caspar René Gregory", "work": "Canon and Text of the New Testament", "year": "1907", "view": "Notes that in Vaticanus Hebrews follows Thessalonians, yet the continuous chapter numbers of Paul's letters show that Hebrews stood immediately after Galatians in the book where they were first assigned." }, { "author": "Umberto Benigni", "work": "Codex Vaticanus, in The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4", "year": "1908", "view": "Calls the codex's original home uncertain: Hort placed it at Rome, Rendel Harris and Armitage Robinson in Asia Minor, and a more common opinion in Egypt." }, { "author": "Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman", "work": "The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th ed.)", "year": "2005", "view": "Standard handbook on how the New Testament text was copied and transmitted, including a survey of the principal Greek manuscripts." }, { "author": "Bruce M. Metzger", "work": "The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance", "year": "1987", "view": "Traces how the New Testament canon took shape and considers the differences in the sequence of its books." }, { "author": "David Trobisch", "work": "Paul's Letter Collection: Tracing the Origins", "year": "1994", "view": "Traces the growth of the collection of Paul's letters and suggests that Paul himself may have played a major role in publishing its first collection." }, { "author": "T. C. Skeat", "work": "The Codex Sinaiticus, the Codex Vaticanus and Constantine (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1999", "view": "Argues that both codices were produced at Caesarea in connection with Constantine's order for Bibles from Eusebius. The proposal is debated." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q209285", "label": "Codex Vaticanus" } ], "title": "梵蒂冈抄本（B）与保罗书信", "summary": "梵蒂冈抄本（Vat. gr. 1209，Gregory-Aland 03）是一部四世纪的希腊文圣经，保存了从《罗马书》到《帖撒罗尼迦后书》的书信，以及《希伯来书》至9:14为止的部分；原有叶片到此中断。Scrivener（1861）报告说，抄本中保罗书信部分的连续分段编号从《加拉太书》（58）跳到《以弗所书》（70），而《希伯来书》从59开始，这指向一部把《希伯来书》放在《加拉太书》之后的更早抄本。佚失的结尾无法显示其后是否接着《提摩太前书》、《提摩太后书》、《提多书》和《腓利门书》。", "dating": "四世纪（INTF《Liste》作“IV”；梵蒂冈图书馆作“sec. IV”）；《希伯来书》9:14至书末以及《启示录》是十五世纪补写的", "currentLocation": "梵蒂冈宗座图书馆（Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana），梵蒂冈城（Vat. gr. 1209）", "establishes": [ "梵蒂冈图书馆所藏一部四世纪的希腊文册子本（Vat. gr. 1209，Gregory-Aland 03），保存了《罗马书》、《哥林多前书》、《哥林多后书》、《加拉太书》、《以弗所书》、《腓立比书》、《歌罗西书》、《帖撒罗尼迦前书》、《帖撒罗尼迦后书》以及《希伯来书》1:1–9:14。这些书信排在福音书、《使徒行传》和大公书信之后，位于抄本第1445–1518页。", "《希伯来书》开始于《帖撒罗尼迦后书》结束的同一页（第1512页），因此在这部抄本中，它紧接在保罗写给帖撒罗尼迦信徒的书信之后，属于保罗书信部分。", "据Scrivener（1861）报告，在抄本两套分段系统中较早的一套里，保罗的书信采用一个连续的分段编号序列：《加拉太书》止于58，《以弗所书》始于70，《希伯来书》始于59。他和Gregory（1907）断定，这套编号是为一部更早的抄本编制的，在那部抄本中，《希伯来书》位于《加拉太书》和《以弗所书》之间。", "原抄写者的笔迹止于《希伯来书》9:14。《希伯来书》其余部分和《启示录》（第1519–1536页）是十五世纪的补抄，另行编目为Gregory-Aland 1957。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "不能说明这部抄本是否收有《提摩太前书》、《提摩太后书》、《提多书》和《腓利门书》。最后几帖已经佚失，缺失的叶数也不得而知，因此这部抄本对教牧书信和《腓利门书》保持沉默。这并不构成反对它们的证据。", "不能证明保罗写了《希伯来书》。它在保罗书信中的位置，显示四世纪的抄写者如何归类一封没有署名作者的书信；却不能显示它由谁所写。", "不能说明这套连续分段编号最初在何时、由谁编制，也不能说明其所反映之书卷顺序所出自的那部更早抄本的年代和地点。" ], "debate": "现存内容没有争议，分段编号的跳跃自十九世纪起就有人报告；但如何解释则较无定论。这套连续编号在何时、由谁编制，它们是来自这部抄本本身的文本祖本，还是来自另一部抄本，都不确定。佚失各帖的内容是推断出来的：西奈抄本和亚历山大抄本（Codex Alexandrinus）都从《希伯来书》接到《提摩太前书》、《提摩太后书》、《提多书》和《腓利门书》；但P46把《希伯来书》放在《罗马书》之后，显示早期的书信集各有不同。这部抄本在四世纪中的具体年代及其来源仍有争论：到1908年，已有人提出罗马、小亚细亚和埃及，后来Skeat则主张该撒利亚。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "沿袭而来的编号（通常的解读）", "statement": "这套连续分段编号是从一部把《希伯来书》放在《加拉太书》之后的更早抄本抄录过来的。这部抄本本身则把《希伯来书》放在《帖撒罗尼迦后书》之后，西奈抄本和亚历山大抄本（Codex Alexandrinus）也是这个顺序。" }, { "label": "编号来自另一来源", "statement": "这套分段系统可能来自另一部抄本，而不是提供正文的那一部。若是这样，它记录的是该系统来源抄本中的顺序，而不是这部抄本直接文本祖本中的顺序。" }, { "label": "佚失结尾的内容", "statement": "教牧书信和《腓利门书》，或许还有《启示录》，很可能接在《希伯来书》之后，如同西奈抄本和亚历山大抄本（Codex Alexandrinus）。这是根据同类圣经抄本作出的合理推断，但没有任何现存叶片能为这部抄本证实这一点。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-codex-vaticanus-paul" }, { "id": "paley-horae-paulinae", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1790, "dateTo": 1790, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 15:24-28", "Acts 20:2-3", "Acts 20:16", "Acts 24:17-19", "1 Corinthians 16:1-4", "2 Corinthians 8:1-4", "2 Corinthians 9:2", "1 Corinthians 4:17-19", "1 Corinthians 16:10-11", "Acts 19:21-22", "Acts 16:1", "2 Timothy 1:5", "2 Timothy 3:15", "Galatians 2:1-10", "Acts 15:1-29" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.timothy", "person.erastus" ], "placeIds": [ "place.macedonia", "place.achaia", "place.jerusalem", "place.corinth", "place.ephesus", "place.lystra" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 132", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In examining, therefore, the agreement between ancient writings, the character of truth and originality is undesignedness: and this test applies to every supposition", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 133", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "As to the history, it extends to these points:—It proves the general reality of the circumstances: it proves the historian's knowledge of these circumstances.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 1 (Exposition of the Argument); Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 139", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "If the reader, therefore, meets with a number which contains an instance that appears to him unsatisfactory, or founded in mistake, he will dismiss that number from the argument, but without prejudice to any other.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 2 (Romans), no. 1; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 145", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here therefore, at length, but fetched from three different writings, we have obtained the several circumstances we inquired after, and which the Epistle to the Romans brings together", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 3 (First Corinthians), no. 3; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 178", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "One thing at least concerning it is certain: that if this passage of St. Paul's history had been taken from his letter, it would have sent Timothy to Corinth by name, or expressly however into Achaia.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 5 (Galatians), no. 2; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 235", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "the discrepancy in the two accounts is so considerable, that it is not without difficulty they can be adapted to the same transaction: so that upon this supposition, there is no place for suspecting that the writers were guided or assisted by each other.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae", "year": "1790", "locator": "ch. 12 (Second Timothy), no. 2; Works (London, 1819) vol. 2, p. 355", "url": "https://archive.org/details/paleyworks02paleuoft", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Here we have a fair unforced example of coincidence.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "paley-horae-paulinae", "author": "William Paley", "work": "Horae Paulinae (Dublin printing)", "year": "1790", "locator": "Title page and contents, Dublin printing of 1790 (Princeton Theological Seminary Library copy)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/horaepaulinaeo00pale", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Lydia McGrew", "work": "Hidden in Plain View: Undesigned Coincidences in the Gospels and Acts", "year": "2017", "view": "Revives the long-neglected argument from undesigned coincidences, applying it within the Gospels and between Acts and Paul's letters, and argues that such puzzle-like fits are best explained by authors who knew the truth about the events and point to honest eyewitness sources." }, { "author": "J. J. Blunt", "work": "Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old and New Testament, an Argument of their Veracity", "year": "1847", "view": "Applies the method of undesigned coincidences to the books of Moses, the Gospels and Acts, and other books of Scripture. The book rearranges studies Blunt published from 1828 onward." }, { "author": "F. C. Baur", "work": "Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi", "year": "1845", "view": "Accepts only Galatians, 1-2 Corinthians and Romans as authentic and reads Acts as a later account that embellished its traditions and drew artificial parallels between Peter and Paul. This undercuts Paley's premise of thirteen genuine letters and a well-informed Acts." }, { "author": "John Knox", "work": "Chapters in a Life of Paul", "year": "1950", "view": "Treats Paul's letters as the primary source for his life and Acts as a secondary one; where the two conflict, the letters are to be followed. Paley instead treats them as independent witnesses that check each other." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dates Acts to about 115 and argues that its author used Josephus and a collection of Paul's letters, the kind of dependence Paley's test is meant to rule out." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q433739", "label": "William Paley" } ], "title": "威廉·佩利的《Horae Paulinae》（1790年）：《使徒行传》与保罗书信之间不经意的吻合", "summary": "威廉·佩利的《Horae Paulinae》（1790年）把保罗的书信与《使徒行传》对照，主张那些看来并非刻意安排的吻合，显示两者都以真实事件为根据。他的首要例证是为耶路撒冷募集的捐款：《罗马书》15章在一处把它交代清楚，《使徒行传》、《哥林多前书》和《哥林多后书》则零散地提供各个片段。这是基于内部比较的论证，并非新证据；而且只有在这些吻合确实并非刻意安排、彼此独立时才能成立，而这一点有些学者提出质疑。", "dating": "1790年（初版）；此处引文出自1819年版《著作集》", "currentLocation": "印本书籍；1790年都柏林印本和1819年版《著作集》已在archive.org数字化", "establishes": [ "佩利的检验标准（第1章）：史书与书信之间的吻合，只有看来并非刻意安排时，才算得上证据。根据书信编成的史书、依照史书伪造的书信，或两者取材于同一来源，都会产生刻意的吻合。他把这一检验应用于《使徒行传》和十三封书信，并为每个实例编号，让读者可以剔除较弱的一例，而不必舍弃其余。", "他的首要例证（第2章第1例）建立在可靠的文本观察上。《罗马书》15:25–26把马其顿和亚该亚的捐献，与即将前往耶路撒冷的行程联系起来。《使徒行传》20:2–3和20:16记述了在希腊的停留和赶往耶路撒冷的行程，却没有提到捐款；《使徒行传》只在保罗于腓力斯面前申辩时提到它（24:17）。《哥林多前书》16:1–4以及《哥林多后书》8:1–4和9:2，则补上了亚该亚和马其顿的捐献。", "第二个例证（第3章第3至4例）：《使徒行传》19:21–22记述保罗先差提摩太和以拉都往马其顿去。《哥林多前书》4:17说提摩太已被差出，16:10–11却把他是否抵达哥林多视为未定。佩利以一条经过马其顿的路线调和两者。这条路线是他自己的推断；他把它当作可能的情形提出，而非经文明言。", "这两个主要例证所依赖的，只是几乎所有学者都公认出自保罗的书信（《罗马书》、《哥林多前书》和《哥林多后书》）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "不能证明《使徒行传》处处准确。这些吻合涉及的是行程计划、同伴和一次捐款，而不是演讲、神迹或叙述者对事件的诠释。", "不能证明佩利所用的十三封书信都出自保罗。他取自争议书信（如《提摩太后书》）的例证，其分量取决于把这些书信定年在保罗在世期间的论证有多强。", "不能证明这些吻合毫无疑问是彼此独立的。如果《使徒行传》的作者知道这些书信，某些吻合就是出于依赖，而非相互印证。" ], "debate": "佩利的推论只有在这些吻合彼此独立时才能成立。自F. C. Baur以来，许多批判学者把《使徒行传》看作较晚、经过塑造的记述，而且多数人只承认七封书信确定出自保罗。Richard Pervo主张，《使徒行传》成书于二世纪初，并使用了保罗的书信——这正是佩利的检验要排除的那种依赖。从佩利到Lydia McGrew，这种方法的回应是：这些吻合太过隐晦，不像是借用的；在佩利的例证中，《使徒行传》几乎没有提到捐款，在19:22也只说提摩太被差往马其顿。这类沉默是偶然还是有意，本身也有争议。许多学者认为《使徒行传》的作者不知道这些书信，这等于承认了佩利关于独立性的前提。他们转而回应说，关于行程和同伴的吻合，显示的是对保罗行踪的可靠信息，而不是《使徒行传》中演讲或神学的准确性；两者冲突时，他们以书信为优先（Knox）。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "《使徒行传》使用了书信", "statement": "有些学者，尤其是Richard Pervo，认为《使徒行传》的作者知道保罗的几封书信。按这种看法，有些吻合是借用，而非独立的印证。如此一来，佩利所指出的松散吻合（《使徒行传》对捐款几乎只字未提，提摩太只被差往马其顿），就意味着书信是被自由运用，而不是被照抄。" }, { "label": "沉默是有意的", "statement": "有些注释者把《使徒行传》对捐款几近沉默解释为有意的缄默，例如这份馈赠受到冷淡接待，或与保罗被捕之事纠缠在一起。那样的话，这一省略就是刻意的，而非偶然。但这仍意味着作者知道这次捐款。" }, { "label": "较晚的书信使用了《使徒行传》", "statement": "许多批判学者认为《提摩太后书》写于保罗身后。较晚的作者可能从《使徒行传》16:1得知提摩太的母亲是犹太人，而佩利把这一点列为与《提摩太后书》1:5和3:15之间不经意的吻合（第12章第2至3例）。因此，这些例证只对已经把这封信定为保罗所写的读者才有分量。" }, { "label": "只计吻合，搁置张力", "statement": "批评这种方法的人认为，除非同时衡量其中的张力——例如《加拉太书》1至2章与《使徒行传》在保罗访问耶路撒冷一事上的出入——否则一份吻合清单可能夸大论证的力度。佩利本人讨论过《加拉太书》2章与《使徒行传》15章之间的差距，并主张这显示两位作者都没有取材于对方；为他辩护的人补充说，每一处吻合都必须按其本身的条件来判断。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-paley-horae-paulinae" }, { "id": "codex-sinaiticus-paul", "kind": "manuscript", "dateFrom": 300, "dateTo": 399, "corpusReferences": [ "Gregory-Aland 01", "INTF Liste docID 20001", "British Library Add. MS 43725" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "attested", "scriptureReferences": [ "Romans 1:1-16:24", "1 Corinthians 1:1-16:24", "2 Corinthians 1:1-13:14", "Galatians 1:1-6:18", "Ephesians 1:1-6:24", "Ephesians 1:1", "Philippians 1:1-4:23", "Colossians 1:1-4:18", "1 Thessalonians 1:1-5:28", "2 Thessalonians 1:1-3:18", "Hebrews 1:1-13:25", "1 Timothy 1:1-6:21", "2 Timothy 1:1-4:22", "Titus 1:1-3:15", "Philemon 1:1-25" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul" ], "placeIds": [ "place.ephesus", "place.caesarea" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Content", "locator": "About the Codex: Content (surviving books; New Testament order, Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians, Acts between the Pastoral and Catholic Epistles)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/content.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Date", "locator": "About the Codex: Date (fourth century, sometimes mid-century, by palaeography; Vaticanus of similar date)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/date.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: Significance", "locator": "About the Codex: Significance (corrections from the fourth to the twelfth century; order of books)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/significance.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "About the Codex: History", "locator": "About the Codex: History (holdings: British Library 347 leaves; Leipzig 43 leaves; parts of six leaves in St Petersburg; further leaves at St Catherine's)", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/history.aspx", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "Transcription of Codex Sinaiticus, quire 36, folio 5 recto", "locator": "Quire 36, folio 5 recto: colophon after 2 Esdras stating that the text was collated with a very old copy corrected by the martyr Pamphilus", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/handler/transcription.ashx?q=36&f=5&s=r&type=0", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "museum-record", "author": "Codex Sinaiticus Project", "work": "Transcription of Codex Sinaiticus, quire 37, folio 3 recto", "locator": "Quire 37, folio 3 recto: colophon after Esther stating that the text was collated with a very old copy corrected by the martyr Pamphilus, whose own subscription cites Origen's Hexapla", "url": "https://www.codexsinaiticus.org/handler/transcription.ashx?q=37&f=3&s=r&type=0", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 01", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 01 (docID 20001): IV century; British Library Add. 43725; page index Romans from 261r to Philemon at 298r, Hebrews 288v-293v, Acts from 299r", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20001&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of GA 01, folio 280v", "locator": "GA 01 folio 280v (pageID 1620), Ephesians 1:1: first hand omits the place-name; corrector supplies it", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=20001&pageID=1620&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 03", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 03 (docID 20003): IV century; Vat. gr. 1209; page index has Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians and ends at Hebrews 9:14", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20003&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of GA 03, page 1493", "locator": "GA 03 page 1493 (pageID 2620), Ephesians 1:1: first hand omits the place-name; corrector supplies it", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=20003&pageID=2620&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: P46", "locator": "Gregory-Aland P46 (docID 10046): dated 200-225; page index Romans, Hebrews, 1-2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=10046&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "NTVMR transcription of P46, folio 75r", "locator": "P46 folio 75r (pageID 1310), Ephesians 1:1: no place-name", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/transcript/get/?docid=10046&pageID=1310&format=xhtml", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "ntvmr-liste", "author": "Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung", "work": "Kurzgefasste Liste record and page index: GA 02", "locator": "Gregory-Aland 02 (docID 20002): V century; British Library Royal 1 D.VIII; page index has Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians", "url": "https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/community/vmr/api/metadata/liste/search/?docID=20002&detail=page", "publicDomain": false, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book III", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 3.3.5", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book VI", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 6.25.11-14", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "But who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some who have gone before us is that Clement, bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, and of others that Luke, the author of the Gospel and the Acts, wrote it.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History, Book VII", "translator": "Arthur Cushman McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "HE 7.32.24-25 (Pamphilus a presbyter of the church at Caesarea in Palestine)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250107.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In his time we became acquainted with Pamphilus, that most eloquent man, of truly philosophical life, who was esteemed worthy of the office of presbyter in that parish.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "D. C. Parker", "work": "Codex Sinaiticus: The Story of the World's Oldest Bible", "year": "2010", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry. A book-length introduction to the codex by the director of the University of Birmingham (ITSEE) team on the Codex Sinaiticus Project. The book's existence and authorship were verified; its arguments were not checked, and it is not cited here as support for any claim." }, { "author": "T. C. Skeat", "work": "The Codex Sinaiticus, the Codex Vaticanus and Constantine (Journal of Theological Studies 50)", "year": "1999", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry. The article discusses the two codices in relation to Constantine. Its title and journal were verified, but its argument was not checked against the text, so it is not cited here as support for any position on where the codex came from." }, { "author": "J. F. Fenlon", "work": "Codex Sinaiticus (The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4)", "year": "1908", "view": "Reports that the codex's origin had been assigned to Rome, southern Italy, Egypt and Caesarea but could not be determined. Dates the corrector who added the Pamphilus note at the end of 2 Esdras probably to the seventh century, and notes that, although some linked the codex with Constantine's fifty copies, there is no sign it was ever at Constantinople." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q152962", "label": "Codex Sinaiticus" } ], "title": "西奈抄本中的保罗书信", "summary": "西奈抄本是一部抄写于四世纪的希腊文圣经，现大部分藏于大英图书馆。它是已知最古老、收齐全部十三封冠以保罗之名的书信的抄本；《希伯来书》也列在这些书信之中，位于《帖撒罗尼迦后书》之后。它显示了在保罗之后大约三个世纪，他的书信如何被汇集和阅读；但作为一部经过校正的抄本，它既不能确定每一处原始读法，也不能断定《希伯来书》是谁写的。", "dating": "公元四世纪（依字体定年；有时更精确地定在该世纪中叶）", "currentLocation": "伦敦大英图书馆（Add. MS 43725，包括整部新约）；其余叶片藏于莱比锡大学图书馆、圣彼得堡的俄罗斯国家图书馆，以及西奈的圣凯瑟琳修道院", "establishes": [ "一部依字体定年于四世纪的希腊文羊皮纸抄本，保存了整部新约。其中保罗书信部分依次为《罗马书》《哥林多前书》《哥林多后书》《加拉太书》《以弗所书》《腓立比书》《歌罗西书》《帖撒罗尼迦前书》《帖撒罗尼迦后书》《希伯来书》《提摩太前书》《提摩太后书》《提多书》和《腓利门书》，紧接着便是《使徒行传》（大英图书馆Add. MS 43725，按INTF页面索引为第261r–298r叶）。", "它是已知最古老、收有每一封冠以保罗之名的书信的抄本。纸草抄本46（P46，约200至225年）就现存部分而言，没有《帖撒罗尼迦后书》《提摩太前书》《提摩太后书》《提多书》或《腓利门书》。年代相近的梵蒂冈抄本在《希伯来书》9:14处中断，因此无从知道它是否曾收有《提摩太前书》《提摩太后书》《提多书》和《腓利门书》。", "在四世纪的两大希腊文抄本——西奈抄本和梵蒂冈抄本——中，《希伯来书》都抄在保罗书信集之内；在本抄本中，它位于《帖撒罗尼迦后书》与《提摩太前书》之间。同一世纪的优西比乌把保罗的书信算作十四封，但也记载，有些人拒绝《希伯来书》，因为罗马教会对它是否出自保罗之手有异议。", "在《以弗所书》1:1，原抄写者的文本缺少指明以弗所的短语，后来有一位校正者把它补上。P46和梵蒂冈抄本的原抄写文本也缺少这个短语，因此本抄本是这一文本问题最早的见证之一。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "《希伯来书》的作者是谁。这封信所在的位置显示的是四世纪的抄写者如何为它归类，而不是谁写了它。据优西比乌转述，奥利金认为其中的思想是保罗的，措辞却出自别人，并说唯有神知道作者是谁。", "每一处的原始措辞。西奈抄本只是单一的见证，从四世纪到十二世纪经过许多人的校正，其读法必须对照纸草抄本和其他抄本加以权衡。", "它在哪里抄写、由谁出资，或《使徒行传》和书信中的任何事件是否发生过。自蒂申多夫以来就有一种看法，把它与君士坦丁向优西比乌订制的五十部抄本联系起来（优西比乌《君士坦丁传》4.36），但没有任何记录证实这一联系；况且，一封书信的准确抄本所证实的是书信的文本，而不是文本所描述的历史。" ], "debate": "来源：抄本中没有任何记录说明它最初在哪里抄写、为谁抄写。一位后来的校正者在《以斯得拉二书》和《以斯帖记》之后留下附注，说文本曾对照一部非常古老的抄本校对过，那部抄本由殉道者潘菲鲁斯校正，他是该撒利亚的长老；这些附注显示，本抄本在抄成若干世纪之后与该撒利亚有关联（芬隆在1908年认为，这位校正者大概属于七世纪）。该撒利亚、埃及（常指亚历山太）、罗马和意大利南部，都曾被提出为它的产地。自蒂申多夫以来就有一种看法，把它与君士坦丁向优西比乌订制的五十部抄本联系起来（优西比乌《君士坦丁传》4.36），但没有任何记录证实这一联系。年代：字体把它定在四世纪，有时定在该世纪中叶，但依字体定年只是约略的。次序：梵蒂冈抄本和五世纪的亚历山大抄本（Codex Alexandrinus）也把《希伯来书》放在《帖撒罗尼迦后书》之后，P46把它放在《罗马书》之后，现代西方圣经则把它放在《腓利门书》之后。文本：《以弗所书》1:1的地名究竟是原有而很早就失落了，还是后来才添加的，学者看法不一。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "把《希伯来书》读作保罗的书信", "statement": "古今都有一些解经者，把《希伯来书》在保罗书信中的位置，看作支持保罗作者说、或支持作者出自保罗圈子的证据。这种编排确实显示，说希腊语的教会中有相当大一部分把《希伯来书》与保罗的书信算在一起。但同一时期的资料也记载了罗马方面的疑虑，以及奥利金认为措辞并非出自保罗的看法，所以单凭这个位置并不能解决作者问题。" }, { "label": "君士坦丁的订制", "statement": "自蒂申多夫以来就有一种看法，把西奈抄本（有时还有梵蒂冈抄本）与君士坦丁为他新城的众教会向优西比乌订制的五十部羊皮纸圣经抄本联系起来（优西比乌《君士坦丁传》4.36）。本抄本的规模和年代使这种可能成立，但没有任何现存记录把这部抄本与那次订制联系起来；芬隆（1908年）也指出，没有迹象显示它曾经在君士坦丁堡。" }, { "label": "《以弗所书》作为传阅书信", "statement": "包括本抄本原抄写文本在内的几份早期见证，在《以弗所书》1:1都没有地名。有人据此认为，这封信原是写给几间教会的。另一些人则认为地名是原有的，缺漏是抄写早期出现的改动，而本抄本自己的校正者已把它改了回来。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-codex-sinaiticus-paul" }, { "id": "smith-acts-27-seamanship", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1848, "dateTo": 1848, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "reconstructed", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 27:12", "Acts 27:13-20", "Acts 27:21-26", "Acts 27:27-29", "Acts 27:39-44", "Acts 28:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.crete", "place.fair-havens", "place.malta" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. ix, note", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I question if modern science has ever done more to confirm an antient author than Captain Smyth's survey of St. Paul's Bay has done in the present case. The soundings alone would have furnished a conclusive test of the truth of the narrative.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. xiii", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "My knowledge of these subjects is only that of an amateur, yet a yacht sailor of more than thirty years' standing can scarcely fail to have acquired some skill in those principles of nautical science which are common to all times", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Introduction, p. xix", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "no man not a sailor could have written a narrative of a sea voyage so consistent in all its parts, unless from actual observation.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 60", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "In the dissertation on the wind Euroclydon I have stated my reasons for preferring the reading of the most ancient manuscripts and versions, Euro-aquilo, which must be between Eurus and Aquilo, or E. N. E.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 64", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Upon reaching it they availed themselves of the smooth water under its lee, to prepare the ship to resist the fury of the storm.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 81", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "on the 10th of August, 1810, the Lively, frigate, coming from the westward with a fair wind, made the land of Gozo, and the west end of Malta, before it was dark.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 82", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "This was upon the point of Koura, the very spot where a ship driving from the east into St. Paul's Bay must have seen and heard the breakers, and the only spot where she could have done so.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 85", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The mean of these extremes is thirty-three miles in twenty-four hours, and the mean of both estimates is thirty-six and a half miles in twenty-four hours.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "Crete to Melita, p. 87", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I admit that a coincidence so very close as this is, is to a certain extent, accidental, but it is an accident which could not have happened had there been any inaccuracy on the part of the author of the narrative", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "smith-voyage-shipwreck-1848", "author": "James Smith", "work": "The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul", "year": "1848", "locator": "The Shipwreck, p. 102", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyageandshipwr01smitgoog", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I am, however, inclined to think that the point of appulse was in the creek, which has no longer a sandy beach, but which must have had one formerly, although now worn away by the wasting action of the sea", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 326", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Smith tries to interpret the Greek words in that sense; but it must be observed that Luke never saw the harbour, and merely speaks on Paul's report of the professional opinion.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 329", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "I must with Smith believe that cables were passed underneath round the ship transversely to hold the timbers together. This is a possible operation in the circumstances, and a useful one.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 334", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Luke seems to have had the landsman's idea that they drifted to and fro in the Mediterranean. A sailor would have known that they drifted in a uniform direction", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1896", "locator": "ch. XIV, p. 341", "url": "https://archive.org/details/stpaultravellerr00rams", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "one of the completest services that has ever been rendered to New Testament scholarship is James Smith's proof that all these circumstances are united in St. Paul's Bay. The only difficulty to which he has applied a rather violent solution is the sandy beach", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata", "locator": "Q6143365", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6143365", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "First Person Narrative in Acts 27-28 (Tyndale Bulletin 36)", "year": "1985", "view": "Rejects Robbins's proposed first-person sea-voyage genre and builds on Smith, while conceding that nautical precision alone shows only that the writer had made such a voyage." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Tests details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence, including records of the Alexandrian grain fleet, and presents Acts as a coherent product of its day (publisher's description). Its treatment of the voyage was not checked for this entry." }, { "author": "C. J. Hemer", "work": "Euraquilo and Melita (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1975", "view": "Defends the wind-name read by the oldest manuscripts at Acts 27:14 and the Malta identification, in reply to Acworth's case for Mljet." }, { "author": "A. Acworth", "work": "Where was St. Paul Shipwrecked? A Re-examination of the Evidence (Journal of Theological Studies)", "year": "1973", "view": "Argues for Mljet, the Adriatic Melita, as the island of the shipwreck rather than Malta, as reported by Hemer (1985); the article itself was not checked." }, { "author": "Vernon K. Robbins", "work": "By Land and by Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages (in C. H. Talbert, ed., Perspectives on Luke-Acts)", "year": "1978", "view": "Argues that first-person plural narration was a convention of ancient sea-voyage accounts, so the we-passages need not indicate an eyewitness (thesis as reported and contested by Hemer 1985)." }, { "author": "Dennis R. MacDonald", "work": "The Shipwrecks of Odysseus and Paul (New Testament Studies 45)", "year": "1999", "view": "According to its abstract, argues that Acts 27-28 repeatedly points to Odysseus's shipwrecks in Odyssey books 5 and 12, and that Luke related Paul's shipwreck to them to exalt Paul and his God by comparison." }, { "author": "Heinz Warnecke", "work": "Die tatsächliche Romfahrt des Apostels Paulus (Stuttgarter Bibelstudien 127)", "year": "1987", "view": "Argues that the shipwreck took place on Kephallenia in western Greece rather than on Malta." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "Lionel Casson", "work": "Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World", "year": "1971", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "Brian M. Rapske", "work": "Acts, Travel and Shipwreck (in D. W. J. Gill and C. Gempf, eds., The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting)", "year": "1994", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q6143365", "label": "James Smith" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q20922918", "label": "St Paul's Bay" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q755984", "label": "St Paul's Island" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q213895", "label": "Gavdos" }, { "scheme": "pleiades", "id": "589858", "label": "Kaudos (island)" } ], "title": "詹姆斯·史密斯对保罗航程与船难的航海分析（1848年）", "summary": "乔丹希尔的詹姆斯·史密斯是苏格兰的游艇航海者兼地质学家。他在《圣保罗的航程与船难》（1848年）中，用水文海图、航路指南和海军军官的意见来检验《使徒行传》27章。他论证说，暴风、在高达岛背风处避风、捆绑船身、漂流和测得的水深，都与在马尔他的圣保罗湾登陆相符。这显示了航海方面的连贯性，尽管其中有些依据本身取自《使徒行传》。它不能证明作者是谁，也不能证明每一件事都发生过。", "dating": "1848年（初版；后来的版本为1856、1866和1880年）", "currentLocation": "已出版的书籍；1848年初版已由互联网档案馆（Internet Archive）根据哈佛学院图书馆的藏本数字化", "establishes": [ "史密斯把《使徒行传》27:13–17的风暴重建为一场来自东北偏东的大风。在《使徒行传》27:14，他采用最古老的抄本和译本中的风名，认为它指介于正东与东北之间的风，而不取较晚的读法。这场风把船从克里特岛中南部近海吹到高达岛（今加夫多斯岛）的背风处，船员在那里得以把小艇吊上来，并用缆索绕住船身。", "史密斯根据两位英国皇家海军舰长的估计，取每天平均约三十六英里半的漂流距离。按这个速度，一艘从高达岛起顶风停航的船，要走完到马尔他库拉角（Koura Point）的476.6英里，需要十三天多一点。这与《使徒行传》27:27的第十四夜相符，而且计算出的航向也与圣保罗湾的方位吻合。", "史密斯把先测得二十英寻、再测得十五英寻的水深（《使徒行传》27:28）与斯迈思舰长对圣保罗湾的测量相对照，并引用了1810年就护卫舰Lively号举行的军事法庭审讯：该舰的瞭望员先看见库拉角的拍岸浪，后才看见陆地（《使徒行传》27:27）。他把搁浅地点定在萨尔莫内塔岛（圣保罗岛）附近，并承认漂流数据的吻合部分出于偶然，而且那个小海湾的沙滩已经不复存在。", "拉姆齐（1895年）称史密斯对圣保罗湾的论证是新约学术历来所得到的最完备的贡献之一，并在横向捆绑船身的问题上支持他，但认为他以沙滩已经消失来解释的办法相当牵强。拉姆齐也不接受史密斯对涉及非尼基港和漂流的希腊文的解读：在他看来，从未见过非尼基港的路加转述了一段错乱的描述，而且是以陆上人的观念来写漂流的。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不是这次航程的独立见证。史密斯从叙事本身的地理推导出风向，漂流速度取自十九世纪军官的估计，终点则沿用传统上认定的马尔他。因此，这种吻合显示的是这段记述与真实的风、海图和海岸彼此连贯；它并没有用外部证据证实每一个细节。", "它不能表明路加是以目击者身份写作的，也不能表明航海检验范围以外的事件发生过，例如《使徒行传》27:21–26中天使的信息和保罗的保证。史密斯声称，不是水手的人若没有亲身观察，就不可能写得如此一致；这是从叙事的一致性得出的推论，也有人提出异议。连拉姆齐也认为，路加对非尼基港的描述得自转述，而且他描述漂流的方式像个陆上人。", "它不能确定确切的登岸地点，也不能解决每一个技术问题。史密斯选定的小海湾需要一片已不复存在的沙滩，而捆绑船身的方法和非尼基港口的朝向都仍有争议。" ], "debate": "从拉姆齐到科林·赫默，史密斯的推崇者都把叙事在航海方面的连贯性看作亲身记述的标志。另一些人回应说，以第一人称叙述航海是一种文学惯例（弗农·罗宾斯），或者说《使徒行传》27至28章模仿奥德修斯的船难（丹尼斯·麦克唐纳）。按这些读法，准确性显示的可能是航海知识，而不是作者身在船上。赫默回应说，罗宾斯所举的平行例子并不能确立这样的惯例，但也承认，单凭航海方面的精确，只能显示作者曾有过这样的航行。技术问题也仍未解决：捆绑船身的缆索是横绕还是纵绕船身，非尼基港朝向哪一方，以及Melita究竟是不是马尔他。海因茨·瓦内克主张是凯法利尼亚岛，A. 阿克沃思和O. F. A. 迈纳杜斯则主张是姆列特岛。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "文学惯例", "statement": "弗农·罗宾斯认为，第一人称复数叙述属于古代航海记述的惯例。按这种读法，史密斯的检验显示的是作者了解船只和地中海的风如何运作，而不是他身在船上。赫默回应说，罗宾斯的例子并不能确立这样一种文体。" }, { "label": "模仿荷马", "statement": "丹尼斯·麦克唐纳认为，《使徒行传》27至28章一再指向奥德修斯的船难：两者都有航海意象、神明应许平安，以及受岛民欢迎的英雄，目的是借着对比来高举保罗和他的神。如果是这样，即使其中的地理是写实的，叙事的形态仍是文学性的。" }, { "label": "另一座岛屿", "statement": "海因茨·瓦内克把船难地点定在希腊西部近海的凯法利尼亚岛。另一种较早的看法曾遭史密斯反驳，后来又由A. 阿克沃思（1973年）和O. F. A. 迈纳杜斯重新提出，把Melita定在亚得里亚海的姆列特岛（Meleda）。马尔他，尤其是圣保罗湾，仍是多数人的认定。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-smith-acts-27-seamanship" }, { "id": "ramsay-acts-accuracy", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": 1895, "dateTo": 1896, "corpusReferences": [], "confidence": "medium-high", "epistemicStatus": "debated", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:49", "Acts 14:1-7", "Acts 14:11", "Acts 16:6", "Acts 18:23", "Galatians 1:2", "Galatians 3:1" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.barnabas", "person.luke" ], "placeIds": [ "place.iconium", "place.lystra", "place.derbe", "place.galatia", "place.pisidian-antioch" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. 1 §1 (Trustworthiness)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.iv.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "On the contrary, I began with a mind unfavourable to it, for the ingenuity and apparent completeness of the Tübingen theory had at one time quite convinced me.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "ch. 5 §6 (The Cities of Lycaonia)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.viii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "it was accurate at the period when Paul visited Lycaonia; that it was accurate at no other time except between 37 and 72 A.D.; and that its only meaning is to distinguish between the Roman part of Lycaonia and the non-Roman part ruled by Antiochus.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895 (tenth edition, 1907)", "locator": "Preface to the second edition (dated 25 March 1896)", "url": "https://ccel.org/ccel/ramsay/paul_roman/paul_roman.iii.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "With the Galatian question the date and authorship of Acts are bound up: the more I study, the more clearly I see that it is impossible to reconcile the “North-Galatian theory” with the first-century origin and Lukan authorship of Acts", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "wikidata", "work": "Wikidata item for William Mitchell Ramsay", "locator": "Q326308", "url": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityData/Q326308.json", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "catalogue-record" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "W. Ward Gasque", "work": "Sir William M. Ramsay: Archaeologist and New Testament Scholar", "year": "1966", "view": "A sympathetic survey. It counts the reliability of Luke-Acts, the South Galatian identification and the stress on historical context as Ramsay's lasting contributions. It reports that Ramsay's 1915 retelling made Acts 14:5-12 the first prompt for his change of mind, and it concedes that the South Galatian case cannot be proved to every scholar's satisfaction." }, { "author": "F. F. Bruce", "work": "Foreword to W. W. Gasque, Sir William M. Ramsay: Archaeologist and New Testament Scholar", "year": "1966", "view": "Says the nineteenth-century Ramsay, if inclined to overstate his case, had a good case to overstate, and that his later role as a popular apologist harmed his scholarly reputation." }, { "author": "Stephen Neill", "work": "The Interpretation of the New Testament 1861-1961", "year": "1964", "view": "As reported by Gasque, names two abiding results of Ramsay's work: his case for the accuracy of the Lukan writings and his South Galatian identification. Notes that many German scholars had little first-hand acquaintance with the archaeological evidence." }, { "author": "Ernst Haenchen", "work": "Die Apostelgeschichte (English translation: The Acts of the Apostles, 1971)", "year": "1956", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." }, { "author": "C. K. Barrett", "work": "Luke the Historian in Recent Study", "year": "1961", "view": "According to Gasque, suggests a date for Acts as late as AD 95-115." }, { "author": "J. C. O'Neill", "work": "The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting", "year": "1961", "view": "Dates Acts to the second century. Gasque cites the book as an example of the position Ramsay had abandoned." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Tests details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence and presents Acts as a coherent product of its day (publisher's description). Secondary summaries report that it dates Acts to about AD 62; the chapters were not checked for this entry." }, { "author": "J. B. Lightfoot", "work": "Saint Paul's Epistle to the Galatians", "year": "1865", "view": "The classic defence, in Ramsay's day, of the North Galatian view: Paul's Galatians were the Gaulish population of central Asia Minor (as summarised by Gasque; the first-edition preface is dated February 1865)." }, { "author": "James Moffatt", "work": "An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament", "year": "1911", "view": "Defends the North Galatian destination against Ramsay's South Galatian case (checked in the revised third edition of 1918). Gasque calls him Ramsay's faithful antagonist on this question." }, { "author": "F. H. Chase", "work": "The Galatia of the Acts (articles in The Expositor)", "year": "1893-1894", "view": "Criticised Ramsay's South Galatian argument. Ramsay credited this criticism with prompting the renewed work behind St Paul the Traveller." }, { "author": "Hans Dieter Betz", "work": "Galatians (Hermeneia)", "year": "1979", "view": "Bibliography only for this entry; argument not checked." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q326308", "label": "William Mitchell Ramsay" } ], "title": "W. M. 拉姆齐的《旅行者圣保罗》（1895年）与《使徒行传》准确性的论证", "summary": "阿伯丁的古典学者W. M. 拉姆齐在《旅行者圣保罗》（1895年）中写道，他曾接受图宾根学派的看法，把《使徒行传》视为二世纪的作品。多年研究小亚细亚的工作使他确信，书中的地区用语符合一世纪罗马的加拉太行省，例如从以哥念逃往吕高尼的记载（《使徒行传》14:6）。在他的解读站得住脚之处，这些用语显示作者熟悉该地区；但它们不能证实每一件事，而他提出的年代范围和南加拉太说的论证仍有争议。", "dating": "初版于1895年（献辞日期为9月17日，序言日期为1895年9月23日）；引文已对照Hodder and Stoughton出版社1907年的第十版核对", "currentLocation": "已出版的书籍；第十版（Hodder and Stoughton，1907年）已由Christian Classics Ethereal Library数字化", "establishes": [ "拉姆齐在1895年写道，图宾根理论曾使他完全信服，他也曾把《使徒行传》当作二世纪的作品。他说，他的看法是在把《使徒行传》用作研究小亚细亚地形、古迹和社会的资料时逐渐改变的。", "他论证说，《使徒行传》14:6标出了一条真实的边界。按他的说法，以哥念属于加拉太行省的弗吕家区，而路司得和特庇则位于该行省吕高尼中属罗马的（“Galatic”）部分。他认为，这种描述只在公元37至72年间才准确。", "拉姆齐认为，对《加拉太书》的南加拉太读法，与《使徒行传》出自一世纪、由路加所著这两点密不可分。他关于加拉太的论证从一开始就受到质疑：先有蔡斯博士在《Expositor》（1893–94年）上提出异议，后来又有詹姆斯·莫法特。即使是持同情态度的评论者F. F. 布鲁斯（1966年）也认为，他倾向于夸大自己的论点，不过那是一个值得夸大的好论点。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "它不能表明《使徒行传》中的事件、讲辞或神迹都如所叙述的那样发生过。正确的边界、官衔或地区，显示的是作者熟悉背景，而不是每一段情节都是史实。", "拉姆齐对自己转变看法的叙述，证明的是他改变了看法，而不是对《使徒行传》的独立证实。据加斯克的概述，在拉姆齐1915年的重述中，转折点是《使徒行传》14:5–12的吕高尼事件；而1895年的文本强调的，则是关于保罗究竟经过北加拉太还是经过吕高尼的争论。", "它不能确定《加拉太书》的收信地在南加拉太，也不能确定《使徒行传》写作年代较早、作者是路加。这三点都仍有争议。" ], "debate": "有三个问题仍未解决。第一，精确的地方知识是指向保罗的一位同伴（拉姆齐、赫默），还是符合一位较晚、消息灵通、从神学角度塑造事件的作者？对《使徒行传》提出的年代，从六十年代初（赫默），到通常主张的八十年代，一直到二世纪（奥尼尔）；据加斯克记述，巴雷特容许晚至95至115年的年代。第二，保罗笔下的加拉太人是住在罗马行省南部的城市，还是住在北部族群意义上的加拉太（莱特富特、莫法特）？第三，拉姆齐的37至72年范围建立在属罗马的吕高尼与属安条克的吕高尼之间的划分上；既然他自己承认有关该行省各区的证据很少，这个范围真像他所说的那样具有决定性吗？", "alternatives": [ { "label": "一位较晚而消息灵通的作者", "statement": "准确的地理和行政用语，可能来自资料来源、旅行知识，或长期沿用的地区用法。因此，它们符合一位在一世纪晚期或更晚写作、为神学目的塑造故事的作者。按这种看法，拉姆齐证明的是作者熟悉小亚细亚，而不是作者是保罗的同伴。" }, { "label": "北加拉太读法", "statement": "J. B. 莱特富特是拉姆齐时代这一观点的经典辩护者，他认为保罗笔下的加拉太人是小亚细亚中部的高卢族群，保罗在《使徒行传》16:6和18:23所记的旅程中曾到访他们。莫法特针对拉姆齐坚持这一观点；据加斯克记述，德国学界大多也是如此。这一观点的辩护者同样借助《使徒行传》来确定保罗的路线，因此，拉姆齐声称他们的观点与出自一世纪、由路加所著的《使徒行传》无法相容，只是他自己的推论。" }, { "label": "修正而非推翻拉姆齐", "statement": "加斯克和赫默等持同情态度的后继者，保留了他用铭文和地理来检验《使徒行传》的方法。加斯克认为，证据倾向支持南加拉太说，但无法证明到令每位学者都满意的程度。布鲁斯在为加斯克一书所写的序言中认为，拉姆齐后来作为通俗护教者的角色，损害了他的学术声誉。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-ramsay-acts-accuracy" }, { "id": "lukan-titles-overview", "kind": "study", "dateFrom": -22, "dateTo": 160, "corpusReferences": [ "IG XIV 601" ], "confidence": "high", "epistemicStatus": "source-supported", "scriptureReferences": [ "Acts 13:6-12", "Acts 16:12-40", "Acts 17:5-9", "Acts 18:12-17", "Acts 19:29-41", "Acts 21:30-40", "Acts 22:24-29", "Acts 23:10-30", "Acts 24:22", "Acts 28:7-10" ], "personIds": [ "person.paul", "person.silas", "person.sergius-paulus", "person.gallio", "person.claudius", "person.jason", "person.lysias", "person.publius" ], "placeIds": [ "place.cyprus", "place.paphos", "place.achaia", "place.corinth", "place.macedonia", "place.thessalonica", "place.philippi", "place.ephesus", "place.malta", "place.jerusalem" ], "sources": [ { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1917", "locator": "54.4.1 (22 BC)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "It was at this time that he restored to the people both Cyprus and Gallia Narbonensis as districts no longer needing the presence of his armies; and thus proconsuls began to be sent to those provinces also.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "tacitus-annals-church-brodribb", "author": "Tacitus", "work": "Annals", "translator": "A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb", "year": "1876", "locator": "Ann. 1.76 (AD 15)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=1:chapter=76", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, on complaining of their burdens, were, it was decided, to be relieved for a time from pro-consular government and to be transferred to the emperor.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "dio-cassius-cary", "author": "Cassius Dio", "work": "Roman History", "translator": "Earnest Cary", "year": "1924", "locator": "60.24.1 (AD 44)", "url": "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "Achaia and Macedonia, which ever since the reign of Tiberius had been assigned to governors directly appointed, Claudius now made to depend upon the lot once more.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. X sect. 3, p. 218 (praetors at Philippi)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title Praetors was not technically accurate, but was frequently employed as a courtesy title for the supreme magistrates of a Roman colony; and, as usual, Luke moves on the plane of educated conversation in such matters, and not on the plane of rigid technical accuracy.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "eusebius-history-mcgiffert", "author": "Eusebius", "work": "Church History", "translator": "A. C. McGiffert", "year": "1890", "locator": "Hist. eccl. 4.15.27 (quoting Mart. Pol. 12.2)", "url": "https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "they cried out and asked the Asiarch Philip to let a lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said that it was not lawful for him, since he had closed the games.", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII sect. 5, p. 281 (Asiarchs)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Asiarchs, or High Priests of Asia, were the heads of the imperial, political-religious organisation of the province in the worship of \"Rome and the Emperors\"", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XII sect. 5, p. 281 (town clerk)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The Clerk was probably the most important official in Ephesus, and therefore in close contact with the court of the proconsul, who generally resided in that city", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "ramsay-st-paul-traveller", "author": "W. M. Ramsay", "work": "St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen", "year": "1895", "locator": "ch. XIV sect. 9, p. 343 (Malta)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog/stpaultraveller02ramsgoog_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "The title \"first\" is technically correct in Melita: it has inscriptional authority.", "role": "early-study" }, { "sourceKey": "kaibel-ig-xiv", "author": "G. Kaibel", "work": "Inscriptiones Graecae XIV: Inscriptiones Siciliae et Italiae", "year": "1890", "locator": "IG XIV 601 (p. 112)", "url": "https://archive.org/download/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C/bub_gb_WNFOCQoUpq4C_djvu.txt", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "", "role": "edition" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-war-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "The Jewish War", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "War 5.243-244 (Whiston 5.5.8; his 'legion' renders a general Greek word for a military unit)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=5:whiston%20chapter=5:whiston%20section=8", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "it had passages down to them both, through which the guard (for there always lay in this tower a Roman legion) went several ways among the cloisters, with their arms, on the Jewish festivals, in order to watch the people, that they might not there attempt to make any innovations", "role": "primary-text" }, { "sourceKey": "josephus-antiquities-whiston", "author": "Flavius Josephus", "work": "Antiquities of the Jews", "translator": "William Whiston", "year": "1737", "locator": "Ant. 20.136 (Whiston 20.6.3)", "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=20:whiston%20chapter=6:whiston%20section=3", "publicDomain": true, "quote": "He also gave order that Celer the tribune should be carried back to Jerusalem, and should be drawn through the city in the sight of all the people, and then should be slain.", "role": "primary-text" } ], "modernScholarship": [ { "author": "Ernest DeWitt Burton", "work": "The Politarchs (American Journal of Theology 2)", "year": "1898", "view": "Collected the known politarch inscriptions, chiefly Macedonian with a few from Thrace, Bithynia, the Bosporus and Egypt and none from Greece proper. Found the office at Thessalonica from Augustus to the mid-second century, and noted that the form used in Acts was otherwise unknown in surviving literature, a related form appearing in Aeneas Tacticus." }, { "author": "E. L. Hicks", "work": "The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part III: Priene, Iasos and Ephesos", "year": "1890", "view": "From the Ephesian inscriptions, including the Salutaris bequest of AD 104, found the clerk of the people drafting decrees with the strategoi and managing public business, and judged Acts 19:35-41 one more instance of Luke's accuracy with titles. Treated Asiarch as another title of the provincial high priest of Asia." }, { "author": "A. N. Sherwin-White", "work": "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament", "year": "1963", "view": "Writing as a Roman historian, argued that Acts' picture of provincial government, civic and colonial magistrates and legal procedure fits the first century AD closely, and judged its historicity in such matters strongly confirmed." }, { "author": "Colin J. Hemer", "work": "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", "year": "1989", "view": "Examined numerous details of Acts against literary, epigraphic and papyrological evidence, official titles among them, presenting Acts as a coherent and consistent product of its own day; defended Lukan authorship and a date before AD 70." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Profit with Delight: The Literary Genre of the Acts of the Apostles", "year": "1987", "view": "Compared Acts with ancient novels, arguing that it shares their blend of edification and entertainment; noted that many novels also feature real persons and historiographical techniques, and treated historicity as a question separate from genre." }, { "author": "Richard I. Pervo", "work": "Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists", "year": "2006", "view": "Dated Acts to about AD 115, arguing among other points that its author knew Josephus's later writings, so accurate period detail is compatible with a late date." }, { "author": "Stephan Witetschek", "work": "Artemis and Asiarchs: Some Remarks on Ephesian Local Colour in Acts 19 (Biblica 90)", "year": "2009", "view": "Argued that the Asiarchs of Acts 19:31 call into question their identification with the high priests of the provincial imperial cult, and that Acts' Ephesian local colour is a source less for Paul's time than for Luke's own." } ], "authorityIds": [ { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q40309", "label": "Acts of the Apostles" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q2912782", "label": "proconsul" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q7210123", "label": "Politarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q727844", "label": "Asiarch" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q59671", "label": "lictor" }, { "scheme": "wikidata", "id": "Q849288", "label": "military tribune" } ], "title": "《使徒行传》中的官衔：逐城考察", "summary": "《使徒行传》为它所描述的每个地方都给出相符的官衔：塞浦路斯和亚该亚的省长，帖撒罗尼迦的城市长官（politarch），腓立比殖民地带着执法吏（lictor）的裁判官（praetor），以弗所的亚西亚首长和书记，马尔他的“第一人”，以及耶路撒冷的一位罗马千夫长。铭文和古代作者证实了其中大部分；在腓立比，“裁判官”（praetor）属于敬称。这显示作者具备良好的地方知识或资料来源；但它不能证明每件事都发生过，也不能确定《使徒行传》的年代。", "dating": "这些用法的证据从公元前22年（塞浦路斯重归省长治理）延续到公元二世纪中叶（士每拿的亚西亚首长腓力，按通常的定年约在155至160年；以弗所的法令延续到公元160年）。有些提供记载的资料年代较晚（卡西乌斯·狄奥，三世纪初；优西比乌，四世纪初）。按通常的年代学，《使徒行传》中的这些场景约在公元46至60年。", "currentLocation": "不适用：本条是对多种文本和铭文的概览；各件实物的所在地见相关条目。", "establishes": [ "《使徒行传》所说塞浦路斯和亚该亚的省长（《使徒行传》13:7；18:12），与两个行省当时的地位相符。公元前22年，奥古斯都把塞浦路斯交还人民管辖，此后由省长治理（狄奥54.4.1）。亚该亚在公元15年改归皇帝管辖，公元44年革老丢在位时，又恢复由抽签选出的省长治理（塔西佗《编年史》1.76；狄奥60.24.1），这在迦流任省长之前；他的任期通常定在五十年代初。", "politarch（城市长官，《使徒行传》17:6和17:8）主要是马其顿的城市官衔。伯顿在1898年指出，除《使徒行传》之外，这个词的这种形式当时只见于铭文（埃涅阿斯·塔克提库斯的著作中有一个相关形式）。他所列的例子大多来自马其顿，少数来自色雷斯、庇推尼、博斯普鲁斯和埃及，希腊本土则一例也没有；在帖撒罗尼迦，这些例子从奥古斯都时代延续到二世纪中叶。", "在罗马殖民地腓立比（《使徒行传》16:12），《使徒行传》称呼当地官长时，用的是希腊文中对praetor（裁判官）的通常称谓，并让他们带着执法吏（lictor）（《使徒行传》16:20–38）。拉姆齐认为，“裁判官”（praetor）并不是技术上准确的官衔，而是常用于殖民地最高长官的敬称；路加是“在受过教育者交谈的层面上”写作，而不是追求严格的技术准确性。", "在以弗所，《使徒行传》所说的亚西亚首长（《使徒行传》19:31）带有一个在该书以外也有证据的行省官衔：在优西比乌所引用的《坡旅甲殉道记》（《教会史》4.15.27）中，士每拿的群众要求亚西亚首长腓力放狮子去攻击坡旅甲。拉姆齐认为，书记可能是以弗所最重要的官员；希克斯1890年编订的该城铭文集显示，书记负责起草法令、管理公共事务。", "在马尔他，一块希腊文铭文（IG XIV 601）称一位罗马骑士为protos Melitaion，即“马尔他人中的第一人”；凯贝尔的注释将它与《使徒行传》28:7相比较。在耶路撒冷，约瑟夫斯说，安东尼亚堡中始终驻有一支罗马部队，堡内有通道向下通往圣殿柱廊，这支部队在节期时使用这些通道（《犹太战记》5.243–244）。他还提到革老丢在位时犹太的一位千夫长（chiliarch），名叫凯勒尔（《犹太古史》20.136）。" ], "doesNotEstablish": [ "某个场景确实如所叙述的那样发生过。帖撒罗尼迦或马尔他官员的官衔正确，并不能证实耶孙的家遭到攻击，或部百流的父亲得了医治；每段情节都需要单独评估。", "单凭这些官衔，不能确定《使徒行传》的年代或作者。这些官衔大多沿用了好几代（帖撒罗尼迦的politarch一直沿用到二世纪，亚西亚首长到二世纪中叶仍然存在），因此一位拥有良好资料的较晚作者也能写对。", "处处一致的技术精确性。按拉姆齐的判断，在腓立比，“裁判官”（praetor）是敬称，而不是该殖民地的正式官衔；《使徒行传》在那里也用了一个泛指掌权者的词（《使徒行传》16:19）。这种准确性属于见识充分、受过教育者的用法，而不是法律术语。", "每位具名官员都已得到独立确认，或每个官衔都只有一种固定含义。是否有铭文提到省长士求．保罗，亚西亚首长究竟是什么，以及马尔他的“第一人”是正式职位还是荣誉性的等级（凯贝尔的注释只说，这里指的是某种明确的市民荣衔），都仍有争议。" ], "debate": "拉姆齐、舍温-怀特和赫默把一连串准确的地方细节（官衔也在其中）视为累积的证据，表明《使徒行传》建立在早期且消息灵通的知识之上；拉姆齐主张作者是保罗的同伴路加，赫默则为路加作者说和公元70年以前的成书年代辩护。佩尔沃回应说，古代小说也使用真实人物和史学写作技巧，他把《使徒行传》定在约115年；维特切克则把书中以弗所的地方色彩，读作更能反映路加自己时代、而非保罗时代的证据。一些较具体的问题仍未解决，尤其是亚西亚首长是否只是亚西亚的最高祭司（拉姆齐的看法，希克斯在1890年也持此见），抑或另有所指；维特切克正是从《使徒行传》19:31本身提出这一疑问。", "alternatives": [ { "label": "消息灵通的同伴", "statement": "如拉姆齐和赫默所论证的，这一系列正确且因地而异的官衔，反映出一位曾与保罗同行、或亲身了解这些城市的作者。这与“我们”段落相符，但这是从准确性得出的推论，不是作者身份的证明。" }, { "label": "拥有良好资料的较晚作者", "statement": "一位一世纪末或二世纪初的作者，借助旅行笔记、当地知情人或更早的记述，可以写出在他自己时代仍在使用的官衔。按这种看法，这些官衔所担保的，与其说是较早的成书年代，不如说是资料的质量，或作者自己的时代（佩尔沃；维特切克）。" }, { "label": "文学写实", "statement": "古代小说也使用真实的人物、地点和史学写作技巧，因此，正确的地方色彩显示了作者的能力，却不能单凭这一点区分历史与虚构。每段情节都必须根据其本身的证据来判断。" } ], "canonicalUrl": "https://paulineletters.com/zh-hans/explore/evidence#evidence-lukan-titles-overview" } ], "contentDigest": "8b48783285ca594dd33a1c8da10936a8cb27c86fb09d91e48adc0daf2c7d2cf6" }